ls today face the challenge of ensuring success for all students. To
prepare all high school students for rewarding careers, schools must offer
essential student services in addition to sound curricular offerings. An
efficient, coordinated, and comprehensive student services system is a key
component in enhancing the chances of success for every student. The authors
define student services as those services provided by an educational
institution to facilitate learning and the purposeful, successful transition of
students from school to the world of work and/or further education. This
document is designed to provide high school student services personnel,
administrators, and teachers with information on student services that they can
use in addressing the needs of the nation's increasingly diverse student
population. Topics discussed include (1) background information on student
services; (2) a discussion of the wide array of student services needed to
facilitate student success; (3) general guidelines in building a comprehensive,
coordinated student services system; (4) various components of a comprehensive
student services system; and (5) the roles of the student services team.
|
INTRODUCTION
Berkeley High School, Monday morning. The chatter of students talking over
assignments and weekend activities fills the air. It is a clear, crisp October
day, sunny but not warm. Amy, a bright, energetic junior is on her way
to the computer lab--but first, she has to stop at the child-care center and
drop off her eight-month-old son. The school-run child-care center is for
students only. This semester 14 children are enrolled.
Down the street, at Vista Technical Education Center, Jerry is waiting
for his interview with a representative from the local software company. The
center's job placement coordinator collaborates with human resource personnel
from area industry and businesses to arrange job opportunities for students who
are completing their vocational education program. Jerry feels confident
because the Vista Technical Education Center's career guidance and counseling
program helps all students transition from school to gainful employment and/or
further education.
|
| Comprehensive, coordinated student services enhance apportunities.
| Amy and Jerry--like all other students--rely on student services to help
enhance the availability and quality of their educational experiences.
While many believe that an excellent faculty, improved teaching techniques,
and a rich curriculum are the necessary components to improve student outcomes,
there is another important area often overlooked by reformers--a comprehensive,
coordinated student services system designed to enhance every student's chance
for success. The means must be found to help all students in their journey from
one educational level to the next and/or from school to rewarding careers and
lifelong learning. An efficient and comprehensive student services delivery
system will help attain this goal. This document presents information on
student services in order to help secondary schools respond to the diverse
needs of the nation's growing student population.
The following questions guided the organization of this document: (1) What does
the term "student services" mean? (2) What student services models are
discussed in the literature? (3) What research has addressed the area of
student services? and (4) What are the services that secondary schools can
provide to be more responsive to students' needs?
The National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE) recognizes the
need for and importance of providing comprehensive student services. In January
of 1995, the NCRVE expanded its dissemination and training function to include
the Office of Student Services. To accomplish this goal, the former Office of
Special Popservices, and supplemental services are among the various terms that
have been associated and used interchangeably with student services. A search
of literature shows that these terms are prevalently used in relation to
student services personnel of higher educational institutions, particularly
four-year colleges and universities (Clement & Rickard, 1992; Delworth,
Hanson, & Associates, 1989; Hood & Arceneaux, 1990). Furthermore, the
terms support services and supplemental services are both used in
the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990. In
the Perkins Act, support services (while not defined specifically) pertain to
services such as counseling, special transportation needs, English-language
instruction, mentoring, child care, and special aids for persons with
disabilities. Supplemental services is defined in Section 521(38) as
". . . curriculum modification, equipment modification, classroom modification,
supportive personnel, and instructional aids and services." In the
School-to-Work Opportunities Act and in day-to-day practice, the terms are used
interchangeably.
Since the aforementioned terms are mostly used in higher-education settings and
in lieu of an acceptable definition in the literature, the NCRVE's Office of
Student Services defines student services as those services provided by an
educational institution to facilitate learning and the purposeful, successful
transition of students from school to work and/or further education.
Postsecondary Level
The literature is rich with information about the history and success of the
field of student services in higher educational institutions, particularly
four-year colleges and universities. While the focus of this document is on the
effective delivery of student services at the secondary level, a lot can be
learned from the development of the field at the postsecondary level, as well
as the ongoing efforts of colleges and universities to improve their student
services.
The growing body of literature and research on postsecondary student services
originated from the traditional commitment of American higher education to
foster development of students outside the classroom and laboratory (Delworth
et al., 1989). It had its roots in Colonial times when the responsibilities now
associated with the profession (e.g., counselor, advisor, teacher, tutor, and
disciplinarian) were performed by faculty members who frequently did these
duties while in residence with students (Rudolf, 1962). Clement and Rickard
(1992) report that "as more roles in supportive services evolved, the seeds of
a broadly defined student personnel profession were sown" (p. 3). While the
1937 landmark The Student Personnel Point of View served as the
foundation of the student affairs profession, A Perspective on Student
Affairs by the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators in
1987 enumerated the major assumptions and beliefs that undergird professional
practice and the multiple roles for student services professionals in
postsecondary programs (Clement & Rickard, 1992; Hood & Arceneaux,
1990).
|
| Other events influenced the evolution of the
student services field in higher education.
| Three developments in higher education influenced the evolution of the field of
student services (Fenske, 1989). These events--(1) a shift in emphasis from
religious to secular concerns, (2) the expansion of institutions in size and
complexity, and (3) the shift in faculty focus from student development to
academic interests--are relevant in understanding the historical background of
the profession. Originally, the religious-oriented institutions included
student services that focused on the development of both a student's intellect
and character. Faculty members were responsible for students' character
development. These institutions later hired new staff to become solely
responsibldeliver essential services to all
students. While the literature is replete with information about student
services, most references center on models for delivering services to students
enrolled in special education, services for students considered to be at risk,
or models for career development and guidance and counseling services. Such
individual services for students are often the focus of studies and reform
initiatives at the middle and high school levels.
It is also important to note what services local districts or states provide to
effectively address secondary students' needs. The Tennessee State Department
of Education has developed guidelines to assist local districts in implementing
a comprehensive student services system at the high school level. (See Chapter
4 for details.)
|
Figure 1
Conceptualizing Students' Concerns:
Range of Students' Concerns
| Developmental Concerns | Unclear Concerns | Remedial Concerns
|
| _______________________
| __ __ __ __ __ __ __
| _______________________
|
| Characteristics or Cues | Characteristics or Cues | Characteristics or Cues
|
| Behavior or issues are predicted by developmental theory as appropriate to age, stage, or level.
Concern is directly or indirectly related to present environment.
Problem is interpersonal or skill/knowledge-oriented.
Student is basically coping with the situation, though not to his or her satisfaction.
Student is able and willing to initiate action.
Problem appears to be a mixture of developmental and remedial concerns.
Student is unable to identify the source of the problem or concern, which may be expressed as general dissatisfaction with life or the institution.
Presenting problem is not congruent with level or intensity of emotion expressed or with nonverbal behavior.
Student is unable to formulate realistic, coherent plans of action.
Student shows lack of motivation to address problems.
Student blames others excessively
Student pours out confused or rambling monologue.
Behavior is not consistent with developmental theory's projections for student of that stage, age, or educational level.
Student is dysfunctional in meeting daily responsibilities.
Problem is centered in part or basically unrelated to present environment or current experiences.
Concern is intrapersonal.
Persistent pattern of self-defeating or self-destructive behavior is evident.
Student indicates intention to do harm to self or others.
Student reports chronic depression, anxiety, physical illness, pain, or discomfort, or has experienced trauma.
Student has a highly unrealistic self-image or self-assessment.
| Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.
| | | |
Figure 2
Conceptualizing Advising and Counseling Activities:
Range of Advising and Counseling Interventions
| If Concern Is Developmental | If Nature of Concern Is Unclear | If Concern Is Remedial
|
|---|
| _______________________ | __ __ __ __ __ __ __
| _______________________
|
| Assist in self-exploration.
Explore alternatives.
Assist in identifying desired goal.
Assist in devising a plan of action to accomplish goals.
Identify resources and services.
Provide information.
Teach specific strategies or techniques.
Refer to established program especially designed to address issue.
Provide encouragement, reassurance, and sxploration of the concern.
Respond to student in ways that communicate empathy, respect, genuineness, and concern.
Encourage active problem solving.
Confront student about incongruence between behavior or talk and actions.
Decide whether concerns are basically developmental or remedial in nature and proceed appropriately.
Show concern and willingness to listen.
Explore alternatives for addressing concern.
Describe available resources for dealing with concern.
Offer information and assistance in initiating contact with appropriate referral source.
Offer encouragement and support.
If there appears to be danger to self or others, take extraordinary measures to assure that the student receives assistance from appropriate professionals.
| Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.
| | |
Career development
research is helpful
in implementing a
comprehensive student
services system.
| Career Development/Education
Assisting students in their career development is one of the services schools
must provide. While there is a dearth of research on comprehensive student
services systems, there is an abundance of research on career development
(Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Herr, 1992; Hoyt & Shylo, 1987; Lester,
1992; Maddy-Bernstein, 1994; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992; National
Occupational Information Coordinating Committee [NOICC], 1994; Super, 1990).
This research is helpful in developing and implementing a comprehensive system
for student services. The terms career development, career guidance,
and career education are often used interchangeably. However, there
are critical differences among them (U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, 1993, cited in NOICC, 1994, 1995). It is generally
accepted that career development is a lifelong process that incorporates
general education, occupational training, and work, as well as one's social and
leisure life. Career education is the process designed to assist in
their career development. Career guidance is one component of a career
education program (Maddy-Bernstein, 1994). However, career development is the
more inclusive term. Hoyt (1987) in a discussion of career education for career
development, suggests that less attention be given to terminology, and more
should be given to the effectiveness of implementation efforts. He adds that
"it is the goal--making the counselor a member of a community-wide career
education team--that is important, not whether the effort is labeled `career
guidance' or `career education'" (p. 20).
An understanding of career theories, concepts, practices, and resources
(Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; McDaniels, 1982; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992)
can help student services professionals in responding to the needs of all
students. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) explain the human growth and development
perspective of career development, which is referred to as life-career
development by Gysbers and Moore (1975, 1981). Gysbers and Moore define
life-career development as self-development over the life span through
the interaction and integration of the roles, settings, and events of a
person's life. The word life in the expression career-life
development focuses on the total person. The word career relates to
the many and often varied roles of individuals (student, worker, consumer,
citizen, parent); the settings in which individuals find themselves (home,
school, community); and the events (planned and unplanned) that occur in their
lifetimes (entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement). The word
development indicates that individuals are always in the process of
becoming. The term life-career development brings these separucation as specially designed instruction at no cost to
the parent, to meet the unique needs of eligible students with disabilities.
Special education service delivery systems vary from school to school, from
school district to school district, and from person to person (Freeman &
Gray, 1989; Lathen, 1983; Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995). The delivery
system should provide a blueprint which describes and sequences prescribed
actions constructed to deliver specially designed instruction to students with
disabilities (Lathen, 1983). Additionally, legislation has been passed to
ensure the educational rights of individuals from special populations.
Special education has made a difference in the education and lives of students
with disabilities. High school student services personnel can draw on the
adaptable and long-established attributes of special education programs.
According to Lathen (1983), the sources and types of services delivered by the
special education service delivery system include the following:
- Administrative and supervisory services
- Evaluation and assessment services
- Planning and placement services
- Instructional and instructional support services
- Parent-related services
- Community-based special education service related agencies (p.
51)
These services are delivered through processes that are designed to
- identify students for special education referral.
- refer the student for special education assessment.
- evaluate suspected exceptional education needs.
- plan individual education programs (IEP).
- make placement decisions.
- implement and evaluate instruction.
|
| School-based support services can be grouped into direct and indirect support services.
| School-based support services
that are made available to students from special populations can be grouped
into two categories--direct support services and indirect support services
(Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995).
Direct support services refer to working directly with students in the
following ways:
- In the vocational and applied technology education classroom
- In the vocational and applied technology education laboratories
- In a resource classroom, by providing parallel instruction based on the
vocational and applied technology education curriculum
- By teaching concepts
- By redesigning handouts
- By outlining chapter questions
- By highlighting and color-coding texts
- By assisting with the completion of daily assignments
- By checking weekly assignments
- By motivating students in the class
- By providing study sheets
- By reading tests to the students
- By giving further explanations or demonstrations of what has been taught
(p. 584)
Indirect support extends beyond directly instructing students.
The following are indirect services that support personnel can provide to
vocational and applied technology education instructors (Wisconsin Department
of Public Instruction, 1993, cited in Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott 1995).
Support personnel can
- suggest methods that may help ensure success for students using
competency-based curricula, motivational techniques, adapted instructional
strategies, teaching techniques, and evaluation methods.
- help plan lessons and activities.
- help with instruction.
- develop class review sheets that reinforce the instructor's lessons.
- write tests.
- proctor tests.
- operate audiovisual equipment.
- take students on field trips to reinforce a lesson they may have had in
class. (p. 584)
Special education programs and practices can provide
relevant information in enhancing student achievement by making essential
student services available to all. There is also a clear connection between the
processes involved i high school students.
|
|
CHAPTER 2
Essential Services To Facilitate Student Success
The NCRVE's Office of Student Services defines student services
as those services provided by an educational institution to facilitate learning
and the smooth transition of students from school to work, military, and/or
further education. To be effective, services must be
- drawn from all the resources of the school and community.
- available to all students, including those
- enrolled in college-preparatory programs.
- enrolled in vocational-technical programs (who may or may not be
collegebound).
- who are members of special populations.
- provided on an individual basis as needed.
- coordinated to ensure all students receive the necessary services.
|
| Services should match students' school-life stages.
| Components
Figure 4 describes the essential services that can enhance student success. The
Office of Student Services personnel have selected three stages of attendance
during which students may need these core services:
- Pre-Enrollment--the period when one is preparing to enroll in a secondary
school
- Enrollment--the period when the student is enrolled
- Post-Enrollment--the period when the student has left the program, whether
he or she has advanced to the next level or withdrawn
Figure 4
describes the services students may require during different stages of their
school life. The principle undergirding the framework is that schools must
assist all students in realizing their educational and career goals.
Students need some services during all three levels and others at different
stages of enrollment. Of course, each student's needs will be unique. Some of
these services, such as counseling, food services, transportation services,
safety and security services, and medical/nursing services, are often taken for
granted by students and parents. Other basic or fundamental services include
child-care assistance, psychological services, social work/social services, and
special accommodations.
|
Provide basic services and assistance during different
stges of school life:
Pre-Enrollment
Enrollment
Post-Enrollment
| The services listed in Figure 4 consist of assistance delivered during
different stages of the student's school life: pre-enrollment, enrollment, and
post-enrollment services. During the pre-enrollment stage, students need
certain services to facilitate their movement to the next level (e.g., middle
to high school, high school to college, education to work). Activities and
programs at this stage are designed to help students be familiar with and
adjust to another level of school life or, ultimately, to work. Orientation to
their new school is very helpful. Appropriate assessment should take place, as
well as career awareness and exploration activities. Students will benefit from
career/educational counseling prior to entering a high school program.
During enrollment, most students will continue to need educational/career
counseling, including career exploration and awareness, career/transition
planning (including financial aid), and additional assessment. Some students
will need tutoring, most will benefit from a mentor, and almost all can use
academic advisement. Job-referral and job-placement services help ensure a
student's smooth transition from school to gainful employment.
While early school leavers and graduates traditionally have minor contact with
the former institution, many of them would still profit from job referral, job
placement, and counseling. There seems to be a growing trend for former
students in the post-enrollment stage to return frequensive, developmental guidance and counseling program can assist all
students in their journey through school, college, and in preparation for the
future. The National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee's (NOICC)
National Career Developmental Guidelines (1989) lists outreach,
counseling, assessment, instruction, career information, work experience,
consultation, referral, and placement and follow-up as processes of a
career guidance and counseling program. NOICC defines counseling as primarily
the communication that occurs between counseling professionals and students
concerning issues of preferences, competency, achievement, self-esteem, and the
array of factors that facilitate or inhibit personal planning. Herr and Cramer
(1992) posit that counseling practices and strategies can (1) be used as a
treatment response to problems already present and (2) stimulate students to
develop and acquire knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary to become
more effective in life. Additionally, building on the work of Gysbers and Moore
in 1987, McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) offer a counseling framework describing
the following stages and sub-stages of the counseling process:
- Goal or Problem Identification, Clarification, and Specification
- Opening
- Gathering Client Information
- Testing
- Understanding Client Information and Behavior
- Drawing Conclusions or Making Diagnoses
- Client Goal or Problem Resolution
- Taking Action
- Developing Individual Career Plans
- Evaluating the Results and Closing the Relationship
In
addition, counseling can refer "to a wide selection of services and activities
that are chosen to help people prevent disabling events, focus on their overall
development, and remedy existing concerns" (Schmidt, 1993, p. 33). Definitions
given by counseling authorities are founded on the perspective that they have
on the process, as well as on their work and relationship with their "clients."
Counseling activities or services include individual and small group
relationships in which counselors help students, parents, or teachers focus on
specific concerns; make plans to address the issues; and act upon these plans.
Academic areas, personal adjustment, career decisions, and a host of other
topics are issues addressed through the counseling services. Herr (1992)
stresses that counseling involves helping students understand how the various
parts of their lives are interrelated.
While it is expected and required of school counselors to be proficient and
competent in counseling, other student services professionals should possess
some guidance and counseling skills and knowledge to be more efficient
and effective in their field (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of the members of
an SST). For example, all service providers should be good listeners, should
understand the career and personal developmental phases of their students, and
should assist them in planning for the future. Additionally, effective and
facilitative interpersonal skills are essential when relating with students.
| | Efficient food service pregrams can attract
students and school staff.
| Food Services
The school cafeteria is often the center of much student socialization, health
maintenance, communication, and development of discipline. It may also be the
only source of good nutrition for students. The number of students, faculty,
and other school staff affect the delivery and efficiency of the food service
program. To increase participation of students and school personnel, the
following activities are recommended (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):
- Ensure food quality.
- Provide greater variety of choices each day.
- Offer second servings.
- Provide sufficient seating capacity in the cafeteria.
- Post menus in advance.
- Schedule serving times for different grot have parents, grandparents,
siblings, or other relatives who can take care of their young children. This
usually leads to an increase in dropout incidence or futile recruitment
efforts. Schools that are sensitive to this legitimate concern of these
students provide or subsidize child-care services (Phillips, 1994). Such
schools are often successful in recruiting, as well as retaining, students with
parental responsibilities in school. Additionally, Orr (1987a) contends that by
providing child-care assistance and other support services, schools can be
effective in helping students cope with their competing responsibilities (i.e.,
as a parent and as a student) and in providing a way for them to complete high
school.
Baglin (1994) points out that child care can include regulated child-care
arrangements, play groups, drop-in centers, babysitters, relative care, or any
arrangement that provides supervision for children consistent with legal and
safety requirements. "Some children may receive multiple forms of care in one
day, including combinations of child care, preschool, kindergarten, Head Start,
special education, or other early childhood programs" (p. 1). School child-care
providers must be cognizant of regulatory requirements in their state and
ensure that every staff member complies with regulations affecting child,
family, and staff health. Most states have regulations for the following health
practices (Morgan, Stevenson, Feine, & Stephens, 1986, as cited in Taylor
& Taylor, 1994):
- hand washing
- employee health examinations
- use of personal toilet articles
- medical recordkeeping
- health-related admission procedures
- isolation of ill children
- return to care after illness
- notification of parents concerning outbreaks of communicable diseases
- reportable diseases
- adult to child ratios
- group size
Schools must also previde transportation services to
- students with disabilities.
- students from adjacent localities.
- teenage mothers.
- on-the-job training students.
Transportation Services
A large percentage of students in our schools are transported by bus. Students
with disabilities and those from adjacent localities often require
transportation assistance. Transportation services are also necessary for
on-the-job training students. There are also high schools that "help transport
teenage mothers to and from school, recognizing the difficulty young mothers
have in getting themselves and their children ready for school, especially on
cold winter days" (Orr, 1987a, p. 74).
School bus procedures are influenced by the following three factors: (1) state
laws and regulations governing school bus transportation, (2) the school
district's policies and procedures established by the school board or governing
board, and (3) the kind of bus operation a district or school has. The
following suggestions can guide schools in improving transportation procedures
(DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):
- Ensure the safety of the students transported to school.
- Provide supervision of loading and unloading buses.
- Ensure that students and parents know the bus rules and proper
behavior.
- Provide adequate service to students with special needs.
- Help bus drivers to see themselves as an extension of the school's
programs and personnel.
- Promote inservice training of school bus drivers.
- Require recording and reporting of all accidents.
- Provide for a quick and satisfactory solution to problems relating to bus
services.
- Require teachers to include bus safety as part of the school's safety
education program.
- Provide specific directions to teachers for requesting bus transportation
for special school events--for example, field trips, athletics, and other
activities.
- Ensure that the carrier cares for and maintaint conducive to learning" (Goal 6 Work
Group, OERI, U.S. Department of Education, 1993, p. 3). In addition, the
following goals can guide schools in designing programs or activities that
promote safe, disciplined, and drug-free schools:
- Improve the safety and welfare of all who attend the school.
- Reduce acts of vandalism to school building and grounds.
- Reduce thefts of school and personal property.
- Reduce physical assaults on students, teachers, and staff.
- Reduce major interference with instruction.
- Improve school discipline and student behavior.
- Improve student attitudes and interest in school and learning. (DeRoche
& Kaiser, 1980, p. 158)
| Solicit input from the school physician and nurese to
develop a health-services program.
| Medical/Nursing Services
A school health program is a necessity in any educational institution. Orr
(1987a) identified programs that were working to remove barriers to staying in
school, including the Adolescent Primary Health Care Clinic in Houston, Texas.
This school-based care clinic makes health services (e.g., medical screenings;
sports physicals; family planning; treatment of minor illnesses; and prenatal,
postpartum, and pediatric care) available to 10,000 students enrolled in eight
junior and senior high schools in Houston's Fifth Ward. DeRoche and Kaiser
(1980) explain that negligence in the proper supervision of the school's health
services program may result in
- serious injury to a child.
- impairment of a child's educability for many years.
- a complaint or lawsuit from a child's parents.
- the spread of disease throughout the school and community. (p.
118)
The school physician and nurse are the key professionals in
delivering medical and nursing services. They coordinate the planning for the
following school health services for students, as well as for faculty (DeRoche
& Kaiser, 1980):
- appraising the current health of every person in the school
- remediating deficiencies
- assisting in the identification of specific disawelfare of students.
However, Dryfoos (1994) reports that only a small number of schools employ
social workers: "Although their training facilitates more direct intervention
into the lives of students and their families, their time must be divided
attending to disabled children and working with parents, teachers, community
agencies, and deeply troubled students" (p. 52). School social workers often
deal with categorical issues such as substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and even
school failure.
Secondary students who are displaced homemakers, single parents, and/or
pregnant mothers need other social services besides educational assistance to
enable them to stay and complete school, develop good parenting skills, and
achieve economic self-sufficiency. Often these students are in dire need of
additional assistance for food, transportation, jobs, and other forms of basic
support. Social services that educational institutions can provide include the
following (Firestone & Drews, 1987):
- counseling on pregnancy, parenting, and other personal problems
- referrals to clinics or other government and private service providers
(e.g., Department of Social Services [DSS], Aid to Families with Dependent
Children [AFDC] agencies)
- parenting and health education, including pregnancy, nutrition,
childbirth, and family planning
- health-care coordination, including referrals for physical examinations,
prenatal and postnatal care, welfare programs, and drug and alcohol programs
- subsidized mental and emotional counseling
| Psychological services must be available to students,
particularly to those who are seriously disturbed.
| Psychological Services
School psychologists are important members of the SST. Basically, they focus on
the psychological aspects of student development and keep abreast of new
developments in psychology relevant to their therapeutic interactions with
students. They are more likely "to receive referralsor future reference.
- Seek community volunteers to create a better unden houses, workshops, and
seminars featuring a review of school policies and procedures and campus
survival tips can be held for orientation purposes. An effective means of
making potential students commit to the school is organizing campus or school
tours for both parents and students. A comprehensive orientation program
includes
- encouraging current students to be school ambassadors by acting as guides
and/or demonstrating their skills during scheduled tours of laboratories.
- tapping students to coordinate a hands-on demonstration.
- involving faculty and staff during orientation period.
- inviting industry representatives to talk about career opportunities and
also to serve on advisory committees.
| Expose students to a wide array of career aeareness and exploration activities.
| Career Awareness and Exploration
Career awareness and exploration are essential parts of career development.
Counselors, teachers, and other student services professionals must collaborate
in assisting all students to explore both themselves and career possibilities
that will help them decide with awareness what they would want to do at
different stages of their lives. The National Career Development
Guidelines (NOICC, 1989) specify student competencies for all educational
levels (i.e., elementary, middle/junior high school, high school, adult) and
are organized according to areas of self-knowledge, educational and
occupational exploration, and career planning. The Guidelines emphasize
the continuity of competencies that must be acquired by students beginning in
elementary school through adult life. Clearly, there is a need for students to
be exposed to career awareness and exploration activities early (i.e., in
elementary school). The following competencies pertaining to career awareness
and exploration are adapted from the National Career Development
Guidelines:
- Knowledge of the importance of and influence of a positive self-concept
- Skills to interact with others
- Awareness and knowledge of the importance of growth and change
- Understanding the relationship of educational achievement and career
opportunities
- Awareness and understanding of the relationship between work and learning
- Acquiring the skills to locate, understand, and interpret career
information
- Understanding how societal needs and functions influence the nature and
structure of work
- Awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good work habits
- Mastering the skills needed to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs
- Acquiring the skills needed to make decisions
| | Establish a comprehensive career information delivery system.
| Nothdurft (1991) (cited
in Herr, 1992) suggests that between 7th and 9th grades, possibly earlier,
students can begin to explore a wide range of occupations and careers, through
site visits, work shadowing, job sampling, and employer visits to schools.
Other activities that can enhance student awareness of career opportunities
include career fairs and field trips to businesses, industries, and colleges
for middle and high school students; and inviting parents into classes to talk
about their various occupations at the elementary school level. In addition, to
facilitate students' career and self-awareness, counselors and other student
services personnel can use various assessment instruments and career
information resources. McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) note the emergence of the
concept of the career information delivery system (CIDS) that can provide all
students with comprehensive occupational and educational information delivered
in an interesting and informative way. To make useful career and educational
information available to students, NOICC and the State Occupational Information
Coordinating Committees (SOICC) have developed data systems. NOICC and SOICC
data systems include the followingdividual's
capabilities for the purpose of improving those capabilities, and (3) group
diagnosis. Formal psychological and educational testing, as well as informal
assessment, can be used. While informal testing (e.g., achievement tests) is
often performed by teachers, student services professionals such as guidance
counselors or school psychologists administer formal assessment (e.g., ASVAB,
SAT, PSAT, ACT, OASIS). High school students can use study guides for tests
they will be taking in conjunction with their future plans. Guthrie, Maxwell,
Mosier, Nadaskay, and Vallejos (1990) recommend that the following guides be
available and accessible to students:
- ASVAB, How To Prepare for the Armed Forces Test, Barrons'
Educational Series, Inc.
- How To Prepare for the SAT, Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
- ARCO Preparation for the SAT, Arco Publishing.
- ACT, American College Testing Program, Simon & Schuster, Inc.
- How To Prepare for the ACT, Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
In both cases, through formal and informal testing, students benefit from
assessment information and the results obtained. Schools need to design
assessment programs that utilize both formal and informal techniques. In
addition, teachers and student services professionals must work together to
collect accurate information to better respond to students' educational or
psychological needs. Based on the results of assessment, students experiencing
and needing further attention can be referred to other specialists (e.g.,
special education coordinator, adult education specialist, school psychologist,
and educational psychologist).
| | Academic advising increases student retention.
| Academic Advising
Academic advising is the most frequently used strategy to increase student
retention (Delworth et al., 1989). While Anderson, Ball, Murphy, and Associates
(1975) report that college students require individual attention to persist in
tinterests,
goals, and career majors.
| Career Awareness and Exploration
Career awareness and exploration actually begin at a young age--at least
informally. Through role models and the media, children often develop
stereotypes and wrong conclusions about many careers, limiting their future.
Thus, schools must begin assisting young people in their career development
when they first enter kindergarten and continue that assistance through every
phase of their development into adult life. Students must learn their
strengths, aptitudes, and interests and be able to match them to the full range
of options. Career education programs in elementary, middle, and high schools
should address these needs.
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 requires that career exploration
(beginning at the earliest possible age, but no later than the 7th grade) be
provided to help students in identifying, selecting, or reconsidering their
interests, goals, and career majors, including those options that may not be
traditional for their gender, race, or ethnicity. Through exploratory
activities, students will be able to make clear plans and appropriate decisions
about their future careers. Career exploration at the middle grades and high
school must help students closely explore those careers that fit their personal
and professional interests and abilities (McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992;
Schmidt, 1993). A comprehensive CIDS is key to helping students explore and
learn about educational and career opportunities. McDaniels and Gysbers (1992),
Guthrie et al. (1990), Hoyt and Shylo (1987), and Schmidt (1993) provide a
listing and a description of materials and resources that must be included in
career information delivery systems. School counselors at all levels should
ensure that their curriculum, school services, and special programs provide
students with the opportunity to learn about present and future trends and
directions of different occupations. (See the discussion on career awareness
and exploration under "Pre-Enrollment" for further information.)
| | Involve school counselors, teachers, parents, and students during
individualized career planning.
| Career Planning
An essential component of career development, individualized career planning is
the cornerstone for making appropriate career, educational, and occupational
choices (Cunanan & Maddy-Bernstein, 1995). It is critical to the smooth
transition of students from school to work and/or further education. Career
planning is a means for students to reflect on and examine important areas of
life development and the value of education to one's future lifestyle and
career choices. It is a pivotal step in opening doors to more promising and
challenging careers for both the young and adults. The core of the career
planning process is the development and implementation of a formal
individualized, comprehensive, written career plan. (See the Appendix for a
"Sample Individualized Career Plan.") The involvement of school counselors,
teachers, parents, and students is essential during the planning process.
Changing interests, preferences, as well as academic achievement of students,
influence career change or planning. Students' Individualized Career Plans
(ICPs) may need to be updated every year to allow for changes in their career
goals or interests. School counselors and trained advisors can assist students
in redefining their future educational and/or career plans.
| | Provide tutoring services to students, including those
with learning difficulties.
| Tutoring
Schools can assist students with learning difficulties by providing tutoring
services. Tutoring is an effective means for the development of skills and the
enhancement of self-concept. A tutoring program may focus on the development
and/or improvement of academic skills such as reading or mathematics; study
skills; or creative skillsnt, (2) raising self-esteem, (3) developing good
work habits, (4) exploring career options, and (5) keeping students,
particularly those at risk of failing or dropping out, in school until
graduation. The following steps are recommended by Smink in starting a
mentoring program (p. 10):
- Establish program need. The focus of a program is determined by the
needs of the group of students to be served.
- Secure school district commitment. Whether the program is
school-, community-, or business-based, the school district, including
teachers, guidance counselors, and administrators, must be involved.
- Identify and select program staff. Select a coordinator who will
head a committee and oversee the daily progress of the program and is available
to both mentors and students when problems arise.
- Refine program goals and objectives. Set clearcut goals and
objectives. For example, if the primary objective of a program is to keep
dropout-prone students in school, set goals for improvement in attendance and
academic achievement.
- Develop activities and procedures. Orientations, workshops, and
other group activities should be planned and put on a master calendar.
Additionally, establish guidelines for the length and frequency of
mentor-student contact.
- Identify students in need of mentors. Participation by students in
a mentoring program is, in most cases, voluntary. Students may be referred by
teachers, guidance counselors, social workers, the court system, or their
parents.
- Promote program and recruit mentors. Formal and informal strategies
(e.g., flyers, posters, mailings, word of mouth, media announcements) can be
used for program promotion and mentor recruitment.
- Train mentors and students. Provide training sessions for both
mentors and mentees.
- Manage the mentor and student matching process. What seems most
important for a successful match is the ability of the mentor to empathize with
the student, identify his or her needs, and to provide manageable steps to fill
those needs.
- Monitor mentoring process. Monitoring during the program is
accomplished through brief meetings, questionnaires, or telephone calls. This
ensures that problems are addressed early, and mismatches are reassigned.
- Evaluate ongoing and terminated cases. Evaluation is critical in
measuring the success of a program as well as in improving it.
- Revise program and recycle steps. Revision of a program should be
based on information from mentors, students, and program staff. Revision should
be a continuous process.
| | Job placement programs improve students' job finding skills.
| Job Placement
While attending school, students need to hone their skills in obtaining gainful
employment. Through job placement programs, students can improve their job
finding skills and learn about job opportunities that are available. Based on
the students' skills, knowledge, interests, and preferences, student services
personnel make job referrals to prospective employers.
Successful job placement programs can match students to identified jobs.
Individuals who are matched with appropriate jobs are more likely to succeed
than those who are randomly placed. Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) suggest
the following steps in matching students to jobs:
- Contact employers and obtain detailed job information.
- Publicize job openings.
- Compare placement profiles/portfolios with job profiles and select several
potential candidates/consumers.
- Meet with placement candidates/consumers and prepare them for job
interviews.
- Assist in arranging for interviews and send placement files.
- Follow-up interviews with job placement/work adjustment or
additional
placement services for rejected candidates. (p. 685) Job placement/referral
services must be provided to all secondary students while in r smooth transition to the
world of work.
Post-Enrollment Services
Post-enrollment services refer to activities that are designed to assist
graduates in securing employment in jobs related to the program completed in
high school. An important aspect of the smooth transition of students from
school to the world of work is establishing a network of potential employers.
Services at this level can include job placement, job referrals, and follow-up
services.
| | Quality job placement programs enhance students' transition to
employment.
| Job Placement
A key indicator of a competent student services delivery system is a successful
job placement service. High schools must assist all students, particularly
those not bound for postsecondary education, to make the transition from school
to employment. The following are criteria for effective job placement of all
students, including those with special needs (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott,
1995):
- Conduct a continuous program of job development, the process of seeking
out existing work opportunities or developing them through job creation and job
redesign.
- Develop good rapport with potential employers so that they will make
contact with the school when job openings become available and become active
participants in the placement network with other employers.
- Collect and synthesize accurate information about each placement candidate
and each prospective job so that the placement profiles/career portfolios can
be prepared and used in job matching.
- Prepare the placement candidate and the prospective employer. Inform the
candidate about the entrance requirements, job requirements, and work
adjustment behaviors. Inform the employer about the preparation and
capabilities of the prospective employee and the placement and follow-up
services to be provided.
- Provide support services to the employer and placement candidate. Arrange
for the placement interview and send the candidate's records. Follow-up the
interview with placement assistance or provide additional training if the
candidate is rejected.
- Follow-up with the new employee to smooth the transition from school to
work for both employee and employer for a specified period of time. (pp.
687-688)
| | Two ways to find information about the jopb market are through
published materials and personal contact.
| Additionally, job placement personnel have to maintain up-to-date
files on community resources and educational and occupational opportunities for
use by teachers, parents, and students. The most recent job market information
should be available and accessible to students. Warren and Luecking (1989)
identified published materials and personal contact as two ways of finding out
about the job market. Examples of published materials include
- labor market projections found in publications of the U.S. Department of
Labor and its local or state equivalent.
- business directories, magazines, and periodicals.
- advertising material, including the Yellow Pages.
- annual reports and other material from local companies.
- publications produced by the state employment commission, job services,
and similar organizations.
- specialized job listings or newsletters produced by local governments,
specialized agencies, colleges, universities, hospitals, school systems, or
specific industries.
- "Help Wanted" and business sections in local newspapers, shoppers, and
trade magazines. (p. 18)
Examples of personal contact that can help in
understanding the job market include
- regular association with business people via civic organizations such as
Jaycees, Rotary, and Lions Club.
- establishing contact with company personnel directors.
- accepting invitations to speak at local organizations on issues related to
employment of all students, including individuals with disabilities.
- volunteering qualifications and that needs of industries and other agencies
are met. It is also important to do a follow-up of graduates placed in jobs.
| Conduct follow-up of graduates and early school leavers.
| Follow-Up Services
A significant feature of tracking students and/or graduates is to conduct
follow-up on a regular basis. Follow-up of graduates can be administered six
months to a year after graduation, either by mail or phone. A five-year
follow-up is also helpful but often difficult to accomplish, given the mobility
of our workforce.
Follow-up programs should include information about programs, occupations, and
careers of the school's students and alumni. By monitoring graduates, as well
as early school leavers, schools can gain valuable information that may be used
in evaluating program effectiveness and for program improvement. In addition,
Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) discuss the merits of doing follow-up: (1)
helps smooth the transition to regular employment for the successful candidate
and helps employers meet productivity demands, (2) immediate follow-up services
provided to the rejected candidate can lead to identification of problem areas
and appropriate actions to overcome them, (3) helps to assure that program
completers do not disappear into the ranks of the labor market or unemployment
rolls, and (4) reassures the employers of the placement office's commitment to
achieving a satisfactory placement situation.
| | | | | | | |
|
CHAPTER 4
The student services team: coordinating student services
While all educators must strive to understand the student population today and
work to alleviate the multitude of problems apparent in secondary schools,
student services professionals are often placed in crisis situations calling
for immediate action. If they are to be successful, it is imperative they have
the training airector should coordinate all segments of the program. In addition,
comm in future Office
of Student Services' publications.
The NCRVE's Office of Student Services defines student services as those
services provided by an educational institution to facilitate learning and the
smooth transition of students from school to work, the military, and/or further
education. The OSS model consists of basic services and various types of
assistance that students need during different stages of their school life
(i.e., pre-enrollment, enrollment, post-enrollment). The basic services include
counseling services, child-care assistance, transportation services, special
accommodations, safety and security services, medical and nursing services,
food services, social services, and psychological services. Schools should
provide the following essential services to students: recruitment and outreach,
student assessment, orientation, and career awareness and exploration prior to
school attendance; student assessment, academic advising, career awareness and
exploration, career planning, tutoring, mentoring, and job placement/referral
while in school; and job placement, job referral, and follow-up/evaluation upon
completion of a secondary program.
Finally, an SST, composed of professionals who specialize in providing
counseling, consulting, assessment, and other related services to ensure the
emotional, educational, social, intellectual, and healthy development of
students, is essential to assist all high school students in learning and
developing to their fullest potential. A description of the roles and
responsibilities of the SST that were adapted from the Tennessee Department of
Education is presented. The advisement system used by the Springdale High
School in Arkansas is a viable strategy in coordinating student services.
To assist all high school students to successfully transition from school to
the workplace and/or further education, there is a need to build a more
responsive, proactive, and comprehensive student services system. This document
is intended to help student services personnel, administrators, and teachers at
the secondary level improve their programs.
|
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Career Goal(s) | Career Goal(s) | Career Goal(s) |
| ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ |
| ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ |
| Educational Goal(s) | Educational Goal(s) | Educational Goal(s) | Educational Goal(s) |
| ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ |
| ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ | ___________________ |
Assessment Data
| Name of Test/Inventory | Date Administered | Results
|
| Achievement | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| Aptitudes | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| Vocational | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| Learning Styles | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| Career Interests | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| Other Tests | ____________________________ | ______________ | ____________________
|
| PSAT: V ______ | M ______ | ACT Composite Score:_____________ | Date Taken:_____________
|
Tentative High School Course Plan
| 9th Grade | 10th Grade | 11th Grade | 12th Grade
|
| Courses | Credit | Courses | Credit | Courses | Credit | Courses | Credit
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______ | ________ | ______
|
| Total Credits | ______ | Total Credits | ______ | Total Credits | ______ | Total Credits | ______
|
| ________ | /______ | ________ | /______ | ________ | /______ | ________ | /______
|
| Student's Signature/Date | Student's Signature/Date | Student's Signature/Date | Student's Signature/Date
|
| Comments:___________ | Comments: ___________ | Comments: ___________ | Comments: ___________
|
Interests
| Grade | School Activities | Community Activities | Interests/Hobbies
|
| (clubs, organizations, sports, committees) | (clubs, committees, organizations) | |
| 9th | __________________________ | __________________________ | __________________________
|
| 10th | __________________________ | __________________________ | __________________________
|
| 11th | __________________________ | __________________________ | __________________________
|
| 12th | __________________________ | __________________________ | __________________________
|
Employment History
| Employer & Address | Dates Employed | Type of Work &Responsibilities | Comments
|
| __________________________ | ____________________ | __________________________ | ____________________
|
| __________________________ | ____________________ | __________________________ | ____________________
|
| __________________________ | ____________________ | __________________________ | ____________________
|
Career Preparation Activities
To Prepare for My Career, I Need To . . .
|
Enroll in a magnet program or Career Center.
Area of Interest:______________________________________________________________________
Learn how to market my experiences and abilities (résumé
writing, letter of application writing, thank-you letter writing, interview)
Pursue an on-the-job training program (Bureau of Apprenticeship, Job Fair,
job placement counselor)
Training Desired:______________________________________________________________________
Enlist in the military service (ASVAB, ROTC, recruiter visit)
Area of Interest:______________________________________________________________________
Attend a trade, technical, or vocational school (vocational college
fair, school visits, financial aid)
Area of Study:______________________________________________________________________
School(s) Considered: _______________________________________________________________
Go to work full-time (Job Fair, shadowing, job placement counselor)
Type of Work:______________________________________________________________________
Attleft> | Full-Time Job | | | Vocational/Technical Training
|
| Part-Time | | | Apprenticeship
|
| Military | | | On-the-Job Training
|
| | | Community College - 2 year
|
| | | University - 4 year
|
REFERENCES
| Name | Address | Phone
|
| ____________________ | ________________________________ | ____________________
|
| ____________________ | ________________________________ | ____________________
|
| ____________________ | ________________________________ | ____________________
|
