NCRVE Home | Site Search | Product Search
<< >> Title Contents NCRVE Home

CHAPTER 3

Components of a Comprehensive Student Services System

To prepare students for successful careers, schools have to offer a wide array of opportunities and support, including essential services. Students have to have access to services that maximize their learning strengths. This section contains a discussion of the various components of a comprehensive student services system. (See Figure 4.)

Basic Services

Conunseling services:
  • Help people prevent disabling events
  • Focus on an individual's overall development
  • Remedy existing concerns

    • Counseling Services

    A comprehensive, developmental guidance and counseling program can assist all students in their journey through school, college, and in preparation for the future. The National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee's (NOICC) National Career Developmental Guidelines (1989) lists outreach, counseling, assessment, instruction, career information, work experience, consultation, referral, and placement and follow-up as processes of a career guidance and counseling program. NOICC defines counseling as primarily the communication that occurs between counseling professionals and students concerning issues of preferences, competency, achievement, self-esteem, and the array of factors that facilitate or inhibit personal planning. Herr and Cramer (1992) posit that counseling practices and strategies can (1) be used as a treatment response to problems already present and (2) stimulate students to develop and acquire knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary to become more effective in life. Additionally, building on the work of Gysbers and Moore in 1987, McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) offer a counseling framework describing the following stages and sub-stages of the counseling process:

    • Goal or Problem Identification, Clarification, and Specification
      • Opening
      • Gathering Client Information
      • Testing
      • Understanding Client Information and Behavior
      • Drawing Conclusions or Making Diagnoses
    • Client Goal or Problem Resolution
      • Taking Action
      • Developing Individual Career Plans
      • Evaluating the Results and Closing the Relationship
    In addition, counseling can refer "to a wide selection of services and activities that are chosen to help people prevent disabling events, focus on their overall development, and remedy existing concerns" (Schmidt, 1993, p. 33). Definitions given by counseling authorities are founded on the perspective that they have on the process, as well as on their work and relationship with their "clients." Counseling activities or services include individual and small group relationships in which counselors help students, parents, or teachers focus on specific concerns; make plans to address the issues; and act upon these plans. Academic areas, personal adjustment, career decisions, and a host of other topics are issues addressed through the counseling services. Herr (1992) stresses that counseling involves helping students understand how the various parts of their lives are interrelated.

    While it is expected and required of school counselors to be proficient and competent in counseling, other student services professionals should possess some guidance and counseling skills and knowledge to be more efficient and effective in their field (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of the members of an SST). For example, all service providers should be good listeners, should understand the career and personal developmental phases of their students, and should assist them in planning for the future. Additionally, effective and facilitative interpersonal skills are essential when relating with students.

    Efficient food service pregrams can attract students and school staff.

    Food Services

    The school cafeteria is often the center of much student socialization, health maintenance, communication, and development of discipline. It may also be the only source of good nutrition for students. The number of students, faculty, and other school staff affect the delivery and efficiency of the food service program. To increase participation of students and school personnel, the following activities are recommended (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):

    • Ensure food quality.
    • Provide greater variety of choices each day.
    • Offer second servings.
    • Provide sufficient seating capacity in the cafeteria.
    • Post menus in advance.
    • Schedule serving times for different groups systematically.
    • Anticipate traffic flow.
    • Invite faculty to eat with students in the same room or share tables with students.
    Child-care services must be provided to students with parental responsibilities.

    Child-Care Assistance

    The numbers of teenage mothers, displaced homemakers, and single parents who are in school or plan to return to school continue to grow. Unfortunately, the majority of these groups of students do not have parents, grandparents, siblings, or other relatives who can take care of their young children. This usually leads to an increase in dropout incidence or futile recruitment efforts. Schools that are sensitive to this legitimate concern of these students provide or subsidize child-care services (Phillips, 1994). Such schools are often successful in recruiting, as well as retaining, students with parental responsibilities in school. Additionally, Orr (1987a) contends that by providing child-care assistance and other support services, schools can be effective in helping students cope with their competing responsibilities (i.e., as a parent and as a student) and in providing a way for them to complete high school.

    Baglin (1994) points out that child care can include regulated child-care arrangements, play groups, drop-in centers, babysitters, relative care, or any arrangement that provides supervision for children consistent with legal and safety requirements. "Some children may receive multiple forms of care in one day, including combinations of child care, preschool, kindergarten, Head Start, special education, or other early childhood programs" (p. 1). School child-care providers must be cognizant of regulatory requirements in their state and ensure that every staff member complies with regulations affecting child, family, and staff health. Most states have regulations for the following health practices (Morgan, Stevenson, Feine, & Stephens, 1986, as cited in Taylor & Taylor, 1994):

    • hand washing
    • employee health examinations
    • use of personal toilet articles
    • medical recordkeeping
    • health-related admission procedures
    • isolation of ill children
    • return to care after illness
    • notification of parents concerning outbreaks of communicable diseases
    • reportable diseases
    • adult to child ratios
    • group size
    Schools must also previde transportation services to
  • students with disabilities.
  • students from adjacent localities.
  • teenage mothers.
  • on-the-job training students.

    • Transportation Services

    A large percentage of students in our schools are transported by bus. Students with disabilities and those from adjacent localities often require transportation assistance. Transportation services are also necessary for on-the-job training students. There are also high schools that "help transport teenage mothers to and from school, recognizing the difficulty young mothers have in getting themselves and their children ready for school, especially on cold winter days" (Orr, 1987a, p. 74).

    School bus procedures are influenced by the following three factors: (1) state laws and regulations governing school bus transportation, (2) the school district's policies and procedures established by the school board or governing board, and (3) the kind of bus operation a district or school has. The following suggestions can guide schools in improving transportation procedures (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):

    • Ensure the safety of the students transported to school.
    • Provide supervision of loading and unloading buses.
    • Ensure that students and parents know the bus rules and proper behavior.
    • Provide adequate service to students with special needs.
    • Help bus drivers to see themselves as an extension of the school's programs and personnel.
    • Promote inservice training of school bus drivers.
    • Require recording and reporting of all accidents.
    • Provide for a quick and satisfactory solution to problems relating to bus services.
    • Require teachers to include bus safety as part of the school's safety education program.
    • Provide specific directions to teachers for requesting bus transportation for special school events--for example, field trips, athletics, and other activities.
    • Ensure that the carrier cares for and maintains the equipment regularly.
    • Inform parents and students of the bus routes and stops.
    • Require an evaluation of bus services each year.
    Provide special accomodations to ensure student success.

    Special Accommodations

    Teachers and other school personnel need to be sensitive and responsive to all secondary students' needs, including students from special populations. While students who are not members of special populations may need some additional assistance to ensure their success, students with special needs require special accommodations to facilitate their learning. Under the 1990 Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology, the groups of students that need such accommodations include

    • individuals who are educationally or economically disadvantaged.
    • those with disabilities.
    • students with limited English proficiency.
    • individuals who participate in programs designed to eliminate sex bias.
    • those in correctional institutions.
    Other legislation (e.g., Individuals with Disabilities Act, Rehabilitation Act of 1973) also address the needs of students who are entitled to school services. Gallagher (1992) stresses that the educational, social, and emotional needs of a student, the type of disabilities, and their degrees of severity should determine the design and delivery of educational programs and services. Schools need to make special accommodations or modifications for students with identified needs to ensure equal opportunity and access to education. Under Section 118(c)(3) of the Perkins Act, the following supplementary services must be provided to students who are members of special populations:

    • curriculum modifications
    • equipment modifications
    • classroom modifications
    • supportive personnel
    • instructional aids and devices
    Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) identify some specific educational services to help students attain their educational goals. Some of these services include supplementary personnel (e.g., psychologist, interpreter, speech therapist, teacher aide/tutor), special equipment, devices, materials (e.g., prosthetics, equipment modification, special equipment), and services from outside agencies (e.g., vocational rehabilitation services, employment service, Job Training Partnership Act programs).
    Education Goal 6: "By the year 2000, every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning."

    Safety and Security Services

    Schools across the nation, particularly in inner cities, face the problems of vandalism, violence, and gangs. Studies reveal the following profile (Goal 6 Work Group, Office of Educational Research and Improvement [OERI], U.S. Department of Education, 1993, p. 3):

    • 70% of public school students and 52% of private school students aged 12 through 19 reported in 1989 that drugs are available at their school
    • nearly 13% of 8th graders, 23% of 10th graders, and 30% of 12th graders had five or more drinks in a row in a two-week period during the 1990-1991 school year
    • at least 71 persons were killed with guns at schools in the
    • period 1986-1990
    • nationwide, 44% of teachers reported in 1991 that student misbehavior interfered substantially with their teaching
    These problems can be prevented or reduced by improving student welfare, safety, security, and discipline. A committee in collaboration with school administrators, faculty and staff, students, and the community can help create and maintain a school environment that is safe, conducive to learning, and rewarding to all. Efforts should focus on accomplishing the sixth National Education goal that states: "By the year 2000, every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning" (Goal 6 Work Group, OERI, U.S. Department of Education, 1993, p. 3). In addition, the following goals can guide schools in designing programs or activities that promote safe, disciplined, and drug-free schools:

    • Improve the safety and welfare of all who attend the school.
    • Reduce acts of vandalism to school building and grounds.
    • Reduce thefts of school and personal property.
    • Reduce physical assaults on students, teachers, and staff.
    • Reduce major interference with instruction.
    • Improve school discipline and student behavior.
    • Improve student attitudes and interest in school and learning. (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980, p. 158)
    Solicit input from the school physician and nurese to develop a health-services program.

    Medical/Nursing Services

    A school health program is a necessity in any educational institution. Orr (1987a) identified programs that were working to remove barriers to staying in school, including the Adolescent Primary Health Care Clinic in Houston, Texas. This school-based care clinic makes health services (e.g., medical screenings; sports physicals; family planning; treatment of minor illnesses; and prenatal, postpartum, and pediatric care) available to 10,000 students enrolled in eight junior and senior high schools in Houston's Fifth Ward. DeRoche and Kaiser (1980) explain that negligence in the proper supervision of the school's health services program may result in

    • serious injury to a child.
    • impairment of a child's educability for many years.
    • a complaint or lawsuit from a child's parents.
    • the spread of disease throughout the school and community. (p. 118)
    The school physician and nurse are the key professionals in delivering medical and nursing services. They coordinate the planning for the following school health services for students, as well as for faculty (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):

    • appraising the current health of every person in the school
    • remediating deficiencies
    • assisting in the identification of specific disabilities in students
    • assisting in the education of students with disabilities
    • providing emergency service for individual injury and individual illness
    • preventing and controlling disease
    • disseminating health-service information to students, teachers, administrators, support staff, and interested community members and agencies
    The specific responsibilities of the school physician and nurse are the following:

    • Physician - The school physician, though not a full-time school employee, is the chief diagnostician responsible for medical examinations of students and employees. He or she supervises immunization programs and works with the school health team on policy development covering emergency care, first aid, recommendations for student physical education, recommendations to dietitians, safety, drugs, alcoholism, and pregnancy.

    • School Nurse - The school nurse is usually the first professional medical resource available to students and staff. Due to budget cuts during the 1980s, today only about 15% of schools employ full-time nurses (Dryfoos, 1994). Services provided by the nurse are often the only health care many students receive. "School nursing functions are limited by state laws (different in every state) to providing hearing, vision, and scoliosis screening; checking attendance; and keeping immunization and other health records" (Dryfoos, 1994, pp. 47-48). In most cases, school nurses are not allowed to distribute prescription drugs, and in a few instances they are not even allowed to distribute aspirin or other analgesics.

    Many students need social services, particularly displaced homemakers, single parents, and/or pregnant mothers.

    Social Work/Social Services

    The main personnel responsible for providing social services in schools is the social worker. The school social worker, like other student services professionals, is concerned with improving the general welfare of students. However, Dryfoos (1994) reports that only a small number of schools employ social workers: "Although their training facilitates more direct intervention into the lives of students and their families, their time must be divided attending to disabled children and working with parents, teachers, community agencies, and deeply troubled students" (p. 52). School social workers often deal with categorical issues such as substance abuse, teen pregnancy, and even school failure.

    Secondary students who are displaced homemakers, single parents, and/or pregnant mothers need other social services besides educational assistance to enable them to stay and complete school, develop good parenting skills, and achieve economic self-sufficiency. Often these students are in dire need of additional assistance for food, transportation, jobs, and other forms of basic support. Social services that educational institutions can provide include the following (Firestone & Drews, 1987):

    • counseling on pregnancy, parenting, and other personal problems
    • referrals to clinics or other government and private service providers (e.g., Department of Social Services [DSS], Aid to Families with Dependent Children [AFDC] agencies)
    • parenting and health education, including pregnancy, nutrition, childbirth, and family planning
    • health-care coordination, including referrals for physical examinations, prenatal and postnatal care, welfare programs, and drug and alcohol programs
    • subsidized mental and emotional counseling
    Psychological services must be available to students, particularly to those who are seriously disturbed.

    Psychological Services

    School psychologists are important members of the SST. Basically, they focus on the psychological aspects of student development and keep abreast of new developments in psychology relevant to their therapeutic interactions with students. They are more likely "to receive referrals or to consult about seriously disturbed students, and more likely to be considered the mental health experts on campus than [are] other student affairs professionals" (Forrest, 1989). The following are some of their responsibilities (DeRoche & Kaiser, 1980):

    • screening students who have been recommended by teachers for psychological services
    • evaluating referred students by examining their current behavior, readiness for school, difficulties in adjusting to school, mental and emotional maturity, academic achievement, and personal and social adjustment
    • identifying and evaluating exceptional learners
    • assisting the school staff and parents regarding the services available from the school psychologist's office
    • assisting the staff and parents in interpreting the results of standardized tests and other learner assessment data
    • assisting the staff and parents in placing the learner in an appropriate school program or receiving the treatment needed
    • consulting with the staff and parents regarding the appropriate instructional and/or remedial programs for learners who have been diagnosed and studied
    • counseling the staff, parents, and the student regarding their problems and concerns during the treatment
    • consulting with the staff and/or individual teachers regarding instructional procedures, teaching techniques, and learner activities that may be more appropriate for a particular student

    • referring students and parents to appropriate community resources
    • initiating and implementing follow-up studies and procedures for students who have been referred and treated
    In addition, according to Kaufman (1994), the school psychologist's role in writing recommendations in a case report is not to be the teacher, but to

    • communicate what was discovered about the referred child's strengths and weaknesses.
    • explain how the teacher can best impart new information to the child.
    • be aware of available curricular materials and be up-to-date on new materials (e.g., by browsing through exhibition halls at pertinent conventions), but recognize that it is the teacher's job to select the actual teaching materials once he or she understands the explanations of the child's functioning and needs.
    • explain to the teacher basic principles of educational psychology and learning, if necessary, and not take for granted that he or she routinely applies basic principles that are axiomatic to the psychologist. (p. 327)

    Pre-Enrollment

    These services are provided to increase students' and parents' awareness of educational opportunities and programs. Students who are about to begin their journey as high school students need assistance in selecting appropriate programs and coursework that are based on their interests, aptitudes, learning styles, and preferences. The following are descriptions of services at the pre-enrollment stage.
    Increase student recruitment in the following ways:
  • good public relations
  • community outreach
  • follow-up
  • various forms of media
  • personal contact

    • Recruitment and Outreach

    Recruitment involves attracting students to show an interest in one's school or institution. Successful recruitment efforts and outreach utilize good public relations, communications, community outreach, and follow-up. While various forms of media--television, radio, notices in the newspaper, and telephone contacts--increase community awareness of school programs, personal contact brings the best results. Disseminating program schedules, orientation announcements, and brochures can be a valuable marketing strategy.

    The following procedures adopted from the Illinois State Board of Education (1991) are suggested to improve recruitment of potential students:

    • Have up-to-date recruitment materials ready for distribution at all times.
    • Maintain files of all contacts for future reference.
    • Seek community volunteers to create a better understanding and mutual respect in the community for the school.
    • Establish a feedback system to referral agencies to apprise them of student status.
    • Enlist the help of vocational and academic teachers.
    • Keep outreach and recruitment activities an ongoing process.
    • Establish rapport with community leaders, human services agencies, administrators, schools, or any organization where contact can be made to bring awareness to potential students.
    • Distribute flyers/brochures in the community.
    Assess incoming students.

    Student Assessment

    Student assessment refers to gathering evidence, collecting data, transforming data so that it can be interpreted, applying analytical techniques, and analyzing data in terms of alternative explanations (Delworth et al., 1989). High schools use different assessment instruments to determine whether incoming students are academically equipped to be successful in their program or educational level. Prior to beginning a course, grade/level, or program, school counselors or other staff administer the learning styles, aptitude, career interests, and/or academic assessments to students. Assessment is also required for students to be placed in special education programs. Assessment results can be used in helping incoming students with their learning difficulties, if there are any.
    Orientation programs can keep students interested and alleviate anxieties.

    Orientation

    A strong orientation program is essential in keeping students' interest in the school or program and for alleviating anxieties and concerns. Orientation efforts on high school campuses should target incoming students, traditional and nontraditional students, transfer students, adult students, and all others who make up the increasing diversity of the nation's student population. A series of formal and informal activities are designed to assist students in adjusting from middle school to high school. Open houses, workshops, and seminars featuring a review of school policies and procedures and campus survival tips can be held for orientation purposes. An effective means of making potential students commit to the school is organizing campus or school tours for both parents and students. A comprehensive orientation program includes

    • encouraging current students to be school ambassadors by acting as guides and/or demonstrating their skills during scheduled tours of laboratories.
    • tapping students to coordinate a hands-on demonstration.
    • involving faculty and staff during orientation period.
    • inviting industry representatives to talk about career opportunities and also to serve on advisory committees.
    Expose students to a wide array of career aeareness and exploration activities.

    Career Awareness and Exploration

    Career awareness and exploration are essential parts of career development. Counselors, teachers, and other student services professionals must collaborate in assisting all students to explore both themselves and career possibilities that will help them decide with awareness what they would want to do at different stages of their lives. The National Career Development Guidelines (NOICC, 1989) specify student competencies for all educational levels (i.e., elementary, middle/junior high school, high school, adult) and are organized according to areas of self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning. The Guidelines emphasize the continuity of competencies that must be acquired by students beginning in elementary school through adult life. Clearly, there is a need for students to be exposed to career awareness and exploration activities early (i.e., in elementary school). The following competencies pertaining to career awareness and exploration are adapted from the National Career Development Guidelines:

    • Knowledge of the importance of and influence of a positive self-concept
    • Skills to interact with others
    • Awareness and knowledge of the importance of growth and change
    • Understanding the relationship of educational achievement and career opportunities
    • Awareness and understanding of the relationship between work and learning
    • Acquiring the skills to locate, understand, and interpret career information
    • Understanding how societal needs and functions influence the nature and structure of work
    • Awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good work habits
    • Mastering the skills needed to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs
    • Acquiring the skills needed to make decisions
    Establish a comprehensive career information delivery system. Nothdurft (1991) (cited in Herr, 1992) suggests that between 7th and 9th grades, possibly earlier, students can begin to explore a wide range of occupations and careers, through site visits, work shadowing, job sampling, and employer visits to schools. Other activities that can enhance student awareness of career opportunities include career fairs and field trips to businesses, industries, and colleges for middle and high school students; and inviting parents into classes to talk about their various occupations at the elementary school level. In addition, to facilitate students' career and self-awareness, counselors and other student services personnel can use various assessment instruments and career information resources. McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) note the emergence of the concept of the career information delivery system (CIDS) that can provide all students with comprehensive occupational and educational information delivered in an interesting and informative way. To make useful career and educational information available to students, NOICC and the State Occupational Information Coordinating Committees (SOICC) have developed data systems. NOICC and SOICC data systems include the following:

    • Occupational Information Systems--computerized databases that contain mechanisms for combining multiple-source occupational and educational data.
    • Career Information Delivery Systems--computer-based systems that provide information about occupations and training opportunities. Located at some 15,000 sites across the country, these systems help students match personal characteristics with compatible occupations.
    McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) present the following four elements in establishing a comprehensive CIDS:

    1. Build on a wide-ranging multimedia approach.
    2. Build on wide-ranging locations of systems.
    3. Build on a wide-ranging appeal to users.
    4. Build on a wide range of sources of career information.
    Additional information on career awareness and exploration can be found in the next section, "During Enrollment." Career awareness and exploration are ongoing and must be provided to students before and during their enrollment.

    During Enrollment

    Schools face the challenge of stabilizing and increasing student retention and, ultimately, of helping them realize their educational and career goals. A team effort among academic advisors, faculty members, counselors, and other student services professionals is critical to guide students in resolving any difficulty or problems that may interfere with their program completion. Ongoing interactions among the various school services components are pivotal in ensuring the smooth transition of students to further education and/or work.
    Conduct ongoing student assessment.

    Student Assessment

    During a student's course of study, the school has to provide ongoing assessment, including diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment is conducted to identify actual or potential behavioral, learning, and psychological problems (Fremont, Seifert, & Wilson, 1977) and to evaluate individual competence (Hunt, 1995). Furthermore, Hunt explains that evaluations may be done for three purposes: (1) certification, (2) assessment of an individual's capabilities for the purpose of improving those capabilities, and (3) group diagnosis. Formal psychological and educational testing, as well as informal assessment, can be used. While informal testing (e.g., achievement tests) is often performed by teachers, student services professionals such as guidance counselors or school psychologists administer formal assessment (e.g., ASVAB, SAT, PSAT, ACT, OASIS). High school students can use study guides for tests they will be taking in conjunction with their future plans. Guthrie, Maxwell, Mosier, Nadaskay, and Vallejos (1990) recommend that the following guides be available and accessible to students:

    • ASVAB, How To Prepare for the Armed Forces Test, Barrons' Educational Series, Inc.
    • How To Prepare for the SAT, Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
    • ARCO Preparation for the SAT, Arco Publishing.
    • ACT, American College Testing Program, Simon & Schuster, Inc.
    • How To Prepare for the ACT, Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
    In both cases, through formal and informal testing, students benefit from assessment information and the results obtained. Schools need to design assessment programs that utilize both formal and informal techniques. In addition, teachers and student services professionals must work together to collect accurate information to better respond to students' educational or psychological needs. Based on the results of assessment, students experiencing and needing further attention can be referred to other specialists (e.g., special education coordinator, adult education specialist, school psychologist, and educational psychologist).
    Academic advising increases student retention.

    Academic Advising

    Academic advising is the most frequently used strategy to increase student retention (Delworth et al., 1989). While Anderson, Ball, Murphy, and Associates (1975) report that college students require individual attention to persist in their schooling, secondary students will definitely benefit from such attention and assistance. He explains that individual attention can mean (1) affirming students as persons who possess the potential to be successful, (2) dealing with anxiety and patterns of self-defeating behaviors, (3) finding reinforcement of their determination to persist, and (4) clarifying students' reasons for being in school. Trained academic advisors and counselors can assist students by providing them with information about programs and educational opportunities and helping them in the selection of appropriate programs and coursework that are based upon the students' interests, abilities, aptitudes, and other factors. During the students' program or coursework, academic advisors can provide students with interventions to ensure their success. Such intervention strategies can include need-based counseling, study skills enhancement workshops, scheduling assistance, and other solutions to help students complete their program.

    Teachers and school officials must work with student services personnel in creating a climate that is conducive to learning, as well as in determining and planning effective programs for students. Brophy (1987) identified the following elements of a successful educational program for students:

    • Teach goal setting, performance appraisal, and self-reinforcement skills.
    • Help students to recognize linkages between effort and outcome.
    • Offer rewards for good or improved performance.
    • Call attention to instrumental value of academic activities.
    • Apply novelty and variety in planning instruction.
    • Include simulation elements that engage students' emotions or allow them to experience events vicariously.
    • Model interest in learning and motivation to learn.
    • Minimize student performance anxiety during learning activities.
    • Project enthusiasm.
    • Model task-related thinking and problem solving.
    Assist students to identify, select, or reconsider interests, goals, and career majors.

    Career Awareness and Exploration

    Career awareness and exploration actually begin at a young age--at least informally. Through role models and the media, children often develop stereotypes and wrong conclusions about many careers, limiting their future. Thus, schools must begin assisting young people in their career development when they first enter kindergarten and continue that assistance through every phase of their development into adult life. Students must learn their strengths, aptitudes, and interests and be able to match them to the full range of options. Career education programs in elementary, middle, and high schools should address these needs.

    The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 requires that career exploration (beginning at the earliest possible age, but no later than the 7th grade) be provided to help students in identifying, selecting, or reconsidering their interests, goals, and career majors, including those options that may not be traditional for their gender, race, or ethnicity. Through exploratory activities, students will be able to make clear plans and appropriate decisions about their future careers. Career exploration at the middle grades and high school must help students closely explore those careers that fit their personal and professional interests and abilities (McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992; Schmidt, 1993). A comprehensive CIDS is key to helping students explore and learn about educational and career opportunities. McDaniels and Gysbers (1992), Guthrie et al. (1990), Hoyt and Shylo (1987), and Schmidt (1993) provide a listing and a description of materials and resources that must be included in career information delivery systems. School counselors at all levels should ensure that their curriculum, school services, and special programs provide students with the opportunity to learn about present and future trends and directions of different occupations. (See the discussion on career awareness and exploration under "Pre-Enrollment" for further information.)

    Involve school counselors, teachers, parents, and students during individualized career planning.

    Career Planning

    An essential component of career development, individualized career planning is the cornerstone for making appropriate career, educational, and occupational choices (Cunanan & Maddy-Bernstein, 1995). It is critical to the smooth transition of students from school to work and/or further education. Career planning is a means for students to reflect on and examine important areas of life development and the value of education to one's future lifestyle and career choices. It is a pivotal step in opening doors to more promising and challenging careers for both the young and adults. The core of the career planning process is the development and implementation of a formal individualized, comprehensive, written career plan. (See the Appendix for a "Sample Individualized Career Plan.") The involvement of school counselors, teachers, parents, and students is essential during the planning process.

    Changing interests, preferences, as well as academic achievement of students, influence career change or planning. Students' Individualized Career Plans (ICPs) may need to be updated every year to allow for changes in their career goals or interests. School counselors and trained advisors can assist students in redefining their future educational and/or career plans.

    Provide tutoring services to students, including those with learning difficulties.

    Tutoring

    Schools can assist students with learning difficulties by providing tutoring services. Tutoring is an effective means for the development of skills and the enhancement of self-concept. A tutoring program may focus on the development and/or improvement of academic skills such as reading or mathematics; study skills; or creative skills in the areas of art, drama, or music. In addition, tutoring is a tool for helping students feel good about themselves and about learning (Koskinen & Wilson, 1983). Moore and Poppino (1983) explain that "the purpose of tutoring is to help one or both of the participants succeed in a potentially difficult or challenging situation" (p. 7). There are several sources of tutors from within and outside of the school. In-school recruiting of tutors can be within the student's classroom and from grades above. The former source of in-school recruiting is referred to as peer tutoring. Peer tutoring involves two students of the same age working together for a specific reason (Moore & Poppino, 1983). Peer tutoring can also be described as a "system of instruction in which learners help each other and learn by teaching" (Goodlad & Hirst, 1990, p. 1). Other in-school tutors can be older students helping younger ones. High schools can strengthen their tutoring programs by encouraging capable students to volunteer as tutors. College students, parents, or other professionals in the community, especially retired citizens, can also be recruited as tutors. An effective tutoring program allows tutors and students to work comfortably together without disrupting the general school routine.
    Develop a mentoring program.

    Mentoring

    Mentoring is a one-to-one relationship of two people where one is usually older and established and the other a student or a novice. Through mentoring, students are able to develop and benefit from a supportive relationship. The mentor is a caring individual, often a professional, who develops an ongoing, one-on-one relationship with someone in need. According to Smink (1990), he or she encourages, listens, gives advice, advocates, acts as a role model, and shares information and experience. A mentor serves as a professional and personal role model who works collaboratively with a student to establish personal, social, and career goals. Mentoring can be an important tool in (1) increasing academic achievement, (2) raising self-esteem, (3) developing good work habits, (4) exploring career options, and (5) keeping students, particularly those at risk of failing or dropping out, in school until graduation. The following steps are recommended by Smink in starting a mentoring program (p. 10):

    • Establish program need. The focus of a program is determined by the needs of the group of students to be served.
    • Secure school district commitment. Whether the program is
      school-, community-, or business-based, the school district, including teachers, guidance counselors, and administrators, must be involved.
    • Identify and select program staff. Select a coordinator who will head a committee and oversee the daily progress of the program and is available to both mentors and students when problems arise.
    • Refine program goals and objectives. Set clearcut goals and objectives. For example, if the primary objective of a program is to keep dropout-prone students in school, set goals for improvement in attendance and academic achievement.
    • Develop activities and procedures. Orientations, workshops, and other group activities should be planned and put on a master calendar. Additionally, establish guidelines for the length and frequency of mentor-student contact.
    • Identify students in need of mentors. Participation by students in a mentoring program is, in most cases, voluntary. Students may be referred by teachers, guidance counselors, social workers, the court system, or their parents.
    • Promote program and recruit mentors. Formal and informal strategies (e.g., flyers, posters, mailings, word of mouth, media announcements) can be used for program promotion and mentor recruitment.
    • Train mentors and students. Provide training sessions for both mentors and mentees.
    • Manage the mentor and student matching process. What seems most important for a successful match is the ability of the mentor to empathize with the student, identify his or her needs, and to provide manageable steps to fill those needs.
    • Monitor mentoring process. Monitoring during the program is accomplished through brief meetings, questionnaires, or telephone calls. This ensures that problems are addressed early, and mismatches are reassigned.
    • Evaluate ongoing and terminated cases. Evaluation is critical in measuring the success of a program as well as in improving it.
    • Revise program and recycle steps. Revision of a program should be based on information from mentors, students, and program staff. Revision should be a continuous process.
    Job placement programs improve students' job finding skills.

    Job Placement

    While attending school, students need to hone their skills in obtaining gainful employment. Through job placement programs, students can improve their job finding skills and learn about job opportunities that are available. Based on the students' skills, knowledge, interests, and preferences, student services personnel make job referrals to prospective employers.

    Successful job placement programs can match students to identified jobs. Individuals who are matched with appropriate jobs are more likely to succeed than those who are randomly placed. Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) suggest the following steps in matching students to jobs:

    • Contact employers and obtain detailed job information.
    • Publicize job openings.
    • Compare placement profiles/portfolios with job profiles and select several potential candidates/consumers.
    • Meet with placement candidates/consumers and prepare them for job interviews.
    • Assist in arranging for interviews and send placement files.
    • Follow-up interviews with job placement/work adjustment or
      additional placement services for rejected candidates. (p. 685)
    Job placement/referral services must be provided to all secondary students while in school and also after completing their education to facilitate their smooth transition to the world of work.

    Post-Enrollment Services

    Post-enrollment services refer to activities that are designed to assist graduates in securing employment in jobs related to the program completed in high school. An important aspect of the smooth transition of students from school to the world of work is establishing a network of potential employers. Services at this level can include job placement, job referrals, and follow-up services.
    Quality job placement programs enhance students' transition to employment.

    Job Placement

    A key indicator of a competent student services delivery system is a successful job placement service. High schools must assist all students, particularly those not bound for postsecondary education, to make the transition from school to employment. The following are criteria for effective job placement of all students, including those with special needs (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995):

    • Conduct a continuous program of job development, the process of seeking out existing work opportunities or developing them through job creation and job redesign.
    • Develop good rapport with potential employers so that they will make contact with the school when job openings become available and become active participants in the placement network with other employers.
    • Collect and synthesize accurate information about each placement candidate and each prospective job so that the placement profiles/career portfolios can be prepared and used in job matching.
    • Prepare the placement candidate and the prospective employer. Inform the candidate about the entrance requirements, job requirements, and work adjustment behaviors. Inform the employer about the preparation and capabilities of the prospective employee and the placement and follow-up services to be provided.
    • Provide support services to the employer and placement candidate. Arrange for the placement interview and send the candidate's records. Follow-up the interview with placement assistance or provide additional training if the candidate is rejected.
    • Follow-up with the new employee to smooth the transition from school to work for both employee and employer for a specified period of time. (pp. 687-688)
    Two ways to find information about the jopb market are through published materials and personal contact. Additionally, job placement personnel have to maintain up-to-date files on community resources and educational and occupational opportunities for use by teachers, parents, and students. The most recent job market information should be available and accessible to students. Warren and Luecking (1989) identified published materials and personal contact as two ways of finding out about the job market. Examples of published materials include

    • labor market projections found in publications of the U.S. Department of Labor and its local or state equivalent.
    • business directories, magazines, and periodicals.
    • advertising material, including the Yellow Pages.
    • annual reports and other material from local companies.
    • publications produced by the state employment commission, job services, and similar organizations.
    • specialized job listings or newsletters produced by local governments, specialized agencies, colleges, universities, hospitals, school systems, or specific industries.
    • "Help Wanted" and business sections in local newspapers, shoppers, and trade magazines. (p. 18)
    Examples of personal contact that can help in understanding the job market include

    • regular association with business people via civic organizations such as Jaycees, Rotary, and Lions Club.
    • establishing contact with company personnel directors.
    • accepting invitations to speak at local organizations on issues related to employment of all students, including individuals with disabilities.
    • volunteering to serve on related boards and committees.
    • networking with other employment programs. (p. 19)
    Encourage all students to use all resources available through CIDS. Students or graduates who are able to maximize the various ways of finding job market information are likely to find gainful employment. They should be exposed to various types of information available through CIDS. The types of information that can guide students in making informed decisions (Guthrie et al., 1990; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992) include

    • occupational information for both military and civilian jobs to include training requirements, duties, salary, work environment, projection of employment, and advancement opportunities.
    • training information to include universities, community colleges, vocational-technical schools, military, apprenticeships, and on-the-job training.
    • job seeking materials related to strategies, résumés, applications, interviews, and advancement.
    In addition, publications produced by the federal government related to occupational and labor market information should be made accessible to students (e.g., Dictionary of Occupational Titles, Guide for Occupational Exploration, Military Career Paths, Occupational Outlook Handbook). McDaniels and Gysbers (1992) and Guthrie et al. (1990) discuss in detail other resources to be included in the CIDS.
    Match job openings with students'qualifications.

    Job Referrals

    Part of a comprehensive job placement program is job referrals for the institution's or school's students and alumni. Student services professionals (i.e., school counselors, job placement coordinators) must have ongoing contact with potential employers in business, industry, and government to make these future employers aware of the school's placement service if the employers are to list job vacancies there. For the student services professionals coordinating job referrals, it is critical that job openings are matched with the students' qualifications and that needs of industries and other agencies are met. It is also important to do a follow-up of graduates placed in jobs.
    Conduct follow-up of graduates and early school leavers.

    Follow-Up Services

    A significant feature of tracking students and/or graduates is to conduct follow-up on a regular basis. Follow-up of graduates can be administered six months to a year after graduation, either by mail or phone. A five-year follow-up is also helpful but often difficult to accomplish, given the mobility of our workforce.

    Follow-up programs should include information about programs, occupations, and careers of the school's students and alumni. By monitoring graduates, as well as early school leavers, schools can gain valuable information that may be used in evaluating program effectiveness and for program improvement. In addition, Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) discuss the merits of doing follow-up: (1) helps smooth the transition to regular employment for the successful candidate and helps employers meet productivity demands, (2) immediate follow-up services provided to the rejected candidate can lead to identification of problem areas and appropriate actions to overcome them, (3) helps to assure that program completers do not disappear into the ranks of the labor market or unemployment rolls, and (4) reassures the employers of the placement office's commitment to achieving a satisfactory placement situation.

    << >> Title Contents NCRVE Home
    NCRVE Home | Site Search | Product Search