NCRVE MDS-1007 - CHAPTER 1

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	CHAPTER 1
	Background Future economic opportunities for high school students across the nation, particularly those at risk of failing, have declined as businesses require a more literate and highly skilled workforce. Educators have initiated school reform efforts to resolve this alarming situation by designing and implementing a more rigorous and challenging curriculum, detracking, block scheduling, and other initiatives. Yet, scant attention has been given to the increased need for student services that enhance students' opportunities for learning. Clearly, a coordinated, comprehensive student services program is also needed to enhance all students' chances of succeeding.
Terms associated with student services: student affairs student personnel student development support services supplemental services	Definition of the Term Student Services services, and supplemental services are among the various terms that have been associated and used interchangeably with student services. A search of literature shows that these terms are prevalently used in relation to student services personnel of higher educational institutions, particularly four-year colleges and universities (Clement & Rickard, 1992; Delworth, Hanson, & Associates, 1989; Hood & Arceneaux, 1990). Furthermore, the terms support services and supplemental services are both used in the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990. In the Perkins Act, support services (while not defined specifically) pertain to services such as counseling, special transportation needs, English-language instruction, mentoring, child care, and special aids for persons with disabilities. Supplemental services is defined in Section 521(38) as ". . . curriculum modification, equipment modification, classroom modification, supportive personnel, and instructional aids and services." In the School-to-Work Opportunities Act and in day-to-day practice, the terms are used interchangeably. Since the aforementioned terms are mostly used in higher-education settings and in lieu of an acceptable definition in the literature, the NCRVE's Office of Student Services defines student services as those services provided by an educational institution to facilitate learning and the purposeful, successful transition of students from school to work and/or further education. Postsecondary Level The literature is rich with information about the history and success of the field of student services in higher educational institutions, particularly four-year colleges and universities. While the focus of this document is on the effective delivery of student services at the secondary level, a lot can be learned from the development of the field at the postsecondary level, as well as the ongoing efforts of colleges and universities to improve their student services. The growing body of literature and research on postsecondary student services originated from the traditional commitment of American higher education to foster development of students outside the classroom and laboratory (Delworth et al., 1989). It had its roots in Colonial times when the responsibilities now associated with the profession (e.g., counselor, advisor, teacher, tutor, and disciplinarian) were performed by faculty members who frequently did these duties while in residence with students (Rudolf, 1962). Clement and Rickard (1992) report that "as more roles in supportive services evolved, the seeds of a broadly defined student personnel profession were sown" (p. 3). While the 1937 landmark The Student Personnel Point of View served as the foundation of the student affairs profession, A Perspective on Student Affairs by the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators in 1987 enumerated the major assumptions and beliefs that undergird professional practice and the multiple roles for student services professionals in postsecondary programs (Clement & Rickard, 1992; Hood & Arceneaux, 1990).
*Other events influenced the evolution of the student services field in higher education.*	Three developments in higher education influenced the evolution of the field of student services (Fenske, 1989). These events--(1) a shift in emphasis from religious to secular concerns, (2) the expansion of institutions in size and complexity, and (3) the shift in faculty focus from student development to academic interests--are relevant in understanding the historical background of the profession. Originally, the religious-oriented institutions included student services that focused on the development of both a student's intellect and character. Faculty members were responsible for students' character development. These institutions later hired new staff to become solely responsible to support and serve students outside the classroom. The increase in size and complexity of institutions is the second development that changed the function and philosophy of student services. Subsequently, faculty members shifted their focus from student development to academic concerns. These events increased the hiring of professionals designated to serve students' needs (Delworth et al., 1989; Hood & Arceneaux, 1990).
*Student services prefessionals must understand the continuum of problems and appropriate responses.*	Services provided by postsecondary schools address student needs that range from typical, developmental needs common to many students at a particular age--like the inability to determine a career choice--to atypical, severe problems such as clinical depression. Student services professionals in colleges and universities, through meetings with students or through referrals from others who know the student, respond to each case by understanding the continuum of problems and correct responses. Figure 1 presents a model for conceptualizing students' concerns that postsecondary student services personnel continue to use. The model, which was developed by Ender and Winston (1982, cited in Delworth et al., 1989), shows that students' concerns can be organized on a continuum, with developmental concerns on one end and remedial concerns on the other end. After a thorough investigation of the students' concern(s), appropriate interventions are considered, and a plan of action is devised. The model summarizes actions that may be initiated, depending upon the assessed nature of the students' concerns (see Figure 2). While these models are used mostly by higher-education student services professionals, high school student services staff and counselors can apply these strategies when responding to the needs of all students. Secondary Level At the secondary level, programs, services, and activities for students are usually linked to how school administrators can effectively improve school life for students. The literature review failed to uncover a single listing of all student services one might expect to find in a secondary institution. In addition, the literature search revealed no comprehensive student services system to effectively and efficiently deliver essential services to all students. While the literature is replete with information about student services, most references center on models for delivering services to students enrolled in special education, services for students considered to be at risk, or models for career development and guidance and counseling services. Such individual services for students are often the focus of studies and reform initiatives at the middle and high school levels. It is also important to note what services local districts or states provide to effectively address secondary students' needs. The Tennessee State Department of Education has developed guidelines to assist local districts in implementing a comprehensive student services system at the high school level. (See Chapter 4 for details.)

Figure 1

Conceptualizing Students' Concerns:
Range of Students' Concerns

Developmental Concerns Unclear Concerns Remedial Concerns
_______________________ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _______________________

Characteristics or Cues Characteristics or Cues Characteristics or Cues
Behavior or issues are predicted by developmental theory as appropriate to age, stage, or level.

Concern is directly or indirectly related to present environment.

Problem is interpersonal or skill/knowledge-oriented.

Student is basically coping with the situation, though not to his or her satisfaction.

Student is able and willing to initiate action.

Problem appears to be a mixture of developmental and remedial concerns.

Student is unable to identify the source of the problem or concern, which may be expressed as general dissatisfaction with life or the institution.

Presenting problem is not congruent with level or intensity of emotion expressed or with nonverbal behavior.

Student is unable to formulate realistic, coherent plans of action.

Student shows lack of motivation to address problems.

Student blames others excessively

Student pours out confused or rambling monologue.

Behavior is not consistent with developmental theory's projections for student of that stage, age, or educational level.

Student is dysfunctional in meeting daily responsibilities.

Problem is centered in part or basically unrelated to present environment or current experiences.

Concern is intrapersonal.

Persistent pattern of self-defeating or self-destructive behavior is evident.

Student indicates intention to do harm to self or others.

Student reports chronic depression, anxiety, physical illness, pain, or discomfort, or has experienced trauma.

Student has a highly unrealistic self-image or self-assessment.

Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.

Figure 2

Conceptualizing Advising and Counseling Activities:
Range of Advising and Counseling Interventions

If Concern Is Developmental If Nature of Concern Is Unclear If Concern Is Remedial
_______________________ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _______________________

Assist in self-exploration.

Explore alternatives.

Assist in identifying desired goal.

Assist in devising a plan of action to accomplish goals.

Identify resources and services.

Provide information.

Teach specific strategies or techniques.

Refer to established program especially designed to address issue.

Provide encouragement, reassurance, and support.

Provide positive feedback.

Act as a sounding board by facilitating exploration of the concern.

Respond to student in ways that communicate empathy, respect, genuineness, and concern.

Encourage active problem solving.

Confront student about incongruence between behavior or talk and actions.

Decide whether concerns are basically developmental or remedial in nature and proceed appropriately.

Show concern and willingness to listen.

Explore alternatives for addressing concern.

Describe available resources for dealing with concern.

Offer information and assistance in initiating contact with appropriate referral source.

Offer encouragement and support.

If there appears to be danger to self or others, take extraordinary measures to assure that the student receives assistance from appropriate professionals.

Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.

Career development
research is helpful
in implementing a
comprehensive student
services system.
Career Development/Education
Assisting students in their career development is one of the services schools must provide. While there is a dearth of research on comprehensive student services systems, there is an abundance of research on career development (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Herr, 1992; Hoyt & Shylo, 1987; Lester, 1992; Maddy-Bernstein, 1994; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992; National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee [NOICC], 1994; Super, 1990). This research is helpful in developing and implementing a comprehensive system for student services. The terms career development, career guidance, and career education are often used interchangeably. However, there are critical differences among them (U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1993, cited in NOICC, 1994, 1995). It is generally accepted that career development is a lifelong process that incorporates general education, occupational training, and work, as well as one's social and leisure life. Career education is the process designed to assist in their career development. Career guidance is one component of a career education program (Maddy-Bernstein, 1994). However, career development is the more inclusive term. Hoyt (1987) in a discussion of career education for career development, suggests that less attention be given to terminology, and more should be given to the effectiveness of implementation efforts. He adds that "it is the goal--making the counselor a member of a community-wide career education team--that is important, not whether the effort is labeled `career guidance' or `career education'" (p. 20).
An understanding of career theories, concepts, practices, and resources (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; McDaniels, 1982; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992) can help student services professionals in responding to the needs of all students. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) explain the human growth and development perspective of career development, which is referred to as life-career development by Gysbers and Moore (1975, 1981). Gysbers and Moore define life-career development as self-development over the life span through the interaction and integration of the roles, settings, and events of a person's life. The word life in the expression career-life development focuses on the total person. The word career relates to the many and often varied roles of individuals (student, worker, consumer, citizen, parent); the settings in which individuals find themselves (home, school, community); and the events (planned and unplanned) that occur in their lifetimes (entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement). The word development indicates that individuals are always in the process of becoming. The term life-career development brings these separate meanings together, but, at the same time, a greater meaning evolves. The expression life-career development describes people with a diversity of lifestyles (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Gysbers & Moore, 1975, 1981; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992). In short, the focus of these career development authorities is on career development over the life span. Career development research is an important facet that high schools can adapt as they strive to offer students a wide array of
opportunities and support to help them successfully transition from school to work and/or further learning.
The two major delivery systems in the schools for career development--the instruction program and the guidance program--that were identified by Gysbers and Henderson (1994) can serve as a schema in designing comprehensive student services systems. Each delivery system focuses on specific student competencies, but at the same time there are areas that may overlap.
Ohio's Career Development Program was envisioned to be a part of a larger student serices model. Shylo (1987) outlines a nine-step implementation strategy that was used in making Ohio's Career Development Program (OCDP) a successful program model. Although the future of OCDP was uncertain in the late 1970s, Ohio's career education leaders, with Shylo as the state supervisor, persisted in continuing career education in Ohio. Shylo envisioned OCDP to be a part of a larger student services model. In addition to the OCDP, the student services model includes the following components: sex equity efforts, occupational and educational information, career guidance, and vocational placement. The student services model supports the concept of having these different components operating cooperatively and sharing responsibilities for services for youth (see Figure 3).

Figure 3
Ohio's Student Services Model

Source: Hoyt and Shylo, 1987.
Adopt successful career guidance and counseling strategies in addressing the needs of the nation's diverse student population. Valuable information can also be gleaned from successful career guidance and counseling interventions and strategies when developing a system for delivering essential student services. The following are approaches that can be adopted (Walz & Ellis, 1992):

Teacher Advisor Program (TAP) by Myrick and Myrick (1992)
Comprehensive Guidance Program Model (CGPM) by Gysbers (1992)
Invitational Learning for Counseling and Development (ILCD) by Purkey and Schmidt (1992)
Each approach has a solid conceptual foundation and has demonstrated its use in widely diverse school settings. The TAP features how a team of professionals can serve a large number of students in a school. Teamwork is paramount in building a coordinated, comprehensive student services system. The CGPM by Gysbers (1992) redefines and highlights the counselor's role as one of performing vital duties within a guidance curriculum that is integrated into the educational mainstream of the school. This model can be used in facilitating systems change that can make student services an integral part of the educational process. The ILCD can assist school faculty in assessing their values and adopting behaviors that lead to a more inviting school. Since there might likely be resistance to the idea of integrated student services, schools can adapt the ILCD when instituting change.
Special education service delivery system is a blueprint of organized activities for educating students with disabilities.
Special Education Programs
Special education delivery system processes can be used in conceptualizing and operating a comprehensive student services system. Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) define special education as specially designed instruction at no cost to the parent, to meet the unique needs of eligible students with disabilities. Special education service delivery systems vary from school to school, from school district to school district, and from person to person (Freeman & Gray, 1989; Lathen, 1983; Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995). The delivery system should provide a blueprint which describes and sequences prescribed actions constructed to deliver specially designed instruction to students with disabilities (Lathen, 1983). Additionally, legislation has been passed to ensure the educational rights of individuals from special populations.
Special education has made a difference in the education and lives of students with disabilities. High school student services personnel can draw on the adaptable and long-established attributes of special education programs. According to Lathen (1983), the sources and types of services delivered by the special education service delivery system include the following:

Administrative and supervisory services

Evaluation and assessment services

Planning and placement services

Instructional and instructional support services

Parent-related services
Community-based special education service related agencies (p. 51)
These services are delivered through processes that are designed to

identify students for special education referral.

refer the student for special education assessment.

evaluate suspected exceptional education needs.

plan individual education programs (IEP).

make placement decisions.

implement and evaluate instruction.

School-based support services can be grouped into direct and indirect support services. School-based support services that are made available to students from special populations can be grouped into two categories--direct support services and indirect support services (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995).

Direct support services refer to working directly with students in the following ways:

In the vocational and applied technology education classroom

In the vocational and applied technology education laboratories

In a resource classroom, by providing parallel instruction based on the vocational and applied technology education curriculum

By teaching concepts

By redesigning handouts

By outlining chapter questions

By highlighting and color-coding texts

By assisting with the completion of daily assignments

By checking weekly assignments

By motivating students in the class

By providing study sheets

By reading tests to the students

By giving further explanations or demonstrations of what has been taught (p. 584)
Indirect support extends beyond directly instructing students. The following are indirect services that support personnel can provide to vocational and applied technology education instructors (Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1993, cited in Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott 1995). Support personnel can

suggest methods that may help ensure success for students using competency-based curricula, motivational techniques, adapted instructional strategies, teaching techniques, and evaluation methods.
help plan lessons and activities.

help with instruction.

develop class review sheets that reinforce the instructor's lessons.

write tests.

proctor tests.

operate audiovisual equipment.

take students on field trips to reinforce a lesson they may have had in class. (p. 584)
Special education programs and practices can provide relevant information in enhancing student achievement by making essential student services available to all. There is also a clear connection between the processes involved in developing special education and student services delivery systems.

Programs for at-risk students are designed to encourage students to remain in and complete school.
Programs and Services for At-Risk Students
Support services are crucial in making programs for at-risk students (e.g., dropout prevention programs) work. Keeping students in school is one of the challenges that educators face today. Statistics show that a huge proportion of our high school students are unable to complete high school or choose to drop out (National Center on Education and the Economy, 1990). The National Forum on Youth at Risk reports that "as many as 30% of the nation's youth are thought to be `at risk' in some way--at risk of failing to get the education and skills they need to become productive adults, adults who will be personally happy and successful and who will contribute to the nation's future" (Education Commission of the States, 1988, p. 1). Brodinsky and Keough (1989) report that at-risk students include those who are

not learning to read or compute

learning to hate school

dropping out of school

becoming hooked on drugs

drifting into crime

becoming sexually active too soon

getting pregnant

becoming despondent and suicidal

failing to acquire skills needed for employment

failing to acquire the understanding needed for citizenship

failing to acquire habits of work

drifting into and remaining in poverty

becoming dependent on welfare throughout life

placing their own children in future cycles of risk (p. 7)
Forces that place students at risk include those that (1) stem from society (e.g., poverty, hardships that come with minority status, weakening of home influence); (2) originate with the school and educational programs (e.g., the troubled curriculum, unsuitable standards for large numbers of students); and (3) come from within the student (e.g., emotional factors that lower self-esteem). Several programs, projects, and approaches have been carried out to address this critical issue.

The followiwng program components are essential in student retention and workforce preparation:
remediation
world-of-work experience
supportive services
personnel development
Programs for at-risk students that work have been documented across the nation (Brodinsky & Keough, 1989; Council of Chief State School
Offices, 1987; Duckenfield & Swanson, 1992; Education Commission of the States, 1988; Orr, 1987a, 1987b). To sustain high school students throughout a program, most of these programs provide incentives or rewards for short-term accomplishments such as good attendance and academic improvement. Components of these programs that have proven vital in retaining students in a program and preparing them for entry in the workforce include remediation, world-of-work exposure, supportive services, and personal development. A review of these programs for at-risk students reveal several aspects that can be adapted by student services personnel in helping high school students become successful in school and in life.
Comprehensive student services systems can increase the success of all students. The need to relate education and work more effectively cannot be overemphasized. It is evident that all our youth need much assistance to become competitive in today's and tomorrow's world market. To keep pace with rapidly changing technology and other workplace demands, educators, businesses, parents, and the community have to collaborate to provide all students with a high-quality American education and training system that includes the delivery of essential student services. The NCRVE's Office of Student Services recognizes the need for a comprehensive student services system to enhance the success of all high school students.

If Concern Is Developmental	If Nature of Concern Is Unclear	If Concern Is Remedial
_______________________	__ __ __ __ __ __ __	_______________________
Assist in self-exploration. Explore alternatives. Assist in identifying desired goal. Assist in devising a plan of action to accomplish goals. Identify resources and services. Provide information. Teach specific strategies or techniques. Refer to established program especially designed to address issue. Provide encouragement, reassurance, and support. Provide positive feedback.	Act as a sounding board by facilitating exploration of the concern. Respond to student in ways that communicate empathy, respect, genuineness, and concern. Encourage active problem solving. Confront student about incongruence between behavior or talk and actions. Decide whether concerns are basically developmental or remedial in nature and proceed appropriately.	Show concern and willingness to listen. Explore alternatives for addressing concern. Describe available resources for dealing with concern. Offer information and assistance in initiating contact with appropriate referral source. Offer encouragement and support. If there appears to be danger to self or others, take extraordinary measures to assure that the student receives assistance from appropriate professionals.
Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.

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Developmental Concerns	Unclear Concerns	Remedial Concerns
_______________________	__ __ __ __ __ __ __	_______________________
Characteristics or Cues	Characteristics or Cues	Characteristics or Cues
Behavior or issues are predicted by developmental theory as appropriate to age, stage, or level. Concern is directly or indirectly related to present environment. Problem is interpersonal or skill/knowledge-oriented. Student is basically coping with the situation, though not to his or her satisfaction. Student is able and willing to initiate action.	Problem appears to be a mixture of developmental and remedial concerns. Student is unable to identify the source of the problem or concern, which may be expressed as general dissatisfaction with life or the institution. Presenting problem is not congruent with level or intensity of emotion expressed or with nonverbal behavior. Student is unable to formulate realistic, coherent plans of action. Student shows lack of motivation to address problems. Student blames others excessively Student pours out confused or rambling monologue.	Behavior is not consistent with developmental theory's projections for student of that stage, age, or educational level. Student is dysfunctional in meeting daily responsibilities. Problem is centered in part or basically unrelated to present environment or current experiences. Concern is intrapersonal. Persistent pattern of self-defeating or self-destructive behavior is evident. Student indicates intention to do harm to self or others. Student reports chronic depression, anxiety, physical illness, pain, or discomfort, or has experienced trauma. Student has a highly unrealistic self-image or self-assessment.
Source: Adapted from Ender and Winston, 1982, as cited in Delworth et al., 1989.

Career development research is helpful in implementing a comprehensive student services system.	Career Development/Education Assisting students in their career development is one of the services schools must provide. While there is a dearth of research on comprehensive student services systems, there is an abundance of research on career development (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Herr, 1992; Hoyt & Shylo, 1987; Lester, 1992; Maddy-Bernstein, 1994; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992; National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee [NOICC], 1994; Super, 1990). This research is helpful in developing and implementing a comprehensive system for student services. The terms career development, career guidance, and career education are often used interchangeably. However, there are critical differences among them (U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 1993, cited in NOICC, 1994, 1995). It is generally accepted that career development is a lifelong process that incorporates general education, occupational training, and work, as well as one's social and leisure life. Career education is the process designed to assist in their career development. Career guidance is one component of a career education program (Maddy-Bernstein, 1994). However, career development is the more inclusive term. Hoyt (1987) in a discussion of career education for career development, suggests that less attention be given to terminology, and more should be given to the effectiveness of implementation efforts. He adds that "it is the goal--making the counselor a member of a community-wide career education team--that is important, not whether the effort is labeled `career guidance' or `career education'" (p. 20). An understanding of career theories, concepts, practices, and resources (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; McDaniels, 1982; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992) can help student services professionals in responding to the needs of all students. Gysbers and Henderson (1994) explain the human growth and development perspective of career development, which is referred to as life-career development by Gysbers and Moore (1975, 1981). Gysbers and Moore define life-career development as self-development over the life span through the interaction and integration of the roles, settings, and events of a person's life. The word life in the expression career-life development focuses on the total person. The word career relates to the many and often varied roles of individuals (student, worker, consumer, citizen, parent); the settings in which individuals find themselves (home, school, community); and the events (planned and unplanned) that occur in their lifetimes (entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement). The word development indicates that individuals are always in the process of becoming. The term life-career development brings these separate meanings together, but, at the same time, a greater meaning evolves. The expression life-career development describes people with a diversity of lifestyles (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994; Gysbers & Moore, 1975, 1981; McDaniels & Gysbers, 1992). In short, the focus of these career development authorities is on career development over the life span. Career development research is an important facet that high schools can adapt as they strive to offer students a wide array of opportunities and support to help them successfully transition from school to work and/or further learning. The two major delivery systems in the schools for career development--the instruction program and the guidance program--that were identified by Gysbers and Henderson (1994) can serve as a schema in designing comprehensive student services systems. Each delivery system focuses on specific student competencies, but at the same time there are areas that may overlap.
*Ohio's Career Development Program was envisioned to be a part of a larger student serices model.*	Shylo (1987) outlines a nine-step implementation strategy that was used in making Ohio's Career Development Program (OCDP) a successful program model. Although the future of OCDP was uncertain in the late 1970s, Ohio's career education leaders, with Shylo as the state supervisor, persisted in continuing career education in Ohio. Shylo envisioned OCDP to be a part of a larger student services model. In addition to the OCDP, the student services model includes the following components: sex equity efforts, occupational and educational information, career guidance, and vocational placement. The student services model supports the concept of having these different components operating cooperatively and sharing responsibilities for services for youth (see Figure 3). Figure 3 Ohio's Student Services Model Source: Hoyt and Shylo, 1987.
*Adopt successful career guidance and counseling strategies in addressing the needs of the nation's diverse student population.*	Valuable information can also be gleaned from successful career guidance and counseling interventions and strategies when developing a system for delivering essential student services. The following are approaches that can be adopted (Walz & Ellis, 1992): Teacher Advisor Program (TAP) by Myrick and Myrick (1992) Comprehensive Guidance Program Model (CGPM) by Gysbers (1992) Invitational Learning for Counseling and Development (ILCD) by Purkey and Schmidt (1992) Each approach has a solid conceptual foundation and has demonstrated its use in widely diverse school settings. The TAP features how a team of professionals can serve a large number of students in a school. Teamwork is paramount in building a coordinated, comprehensive student services system. The CGPM by Gysbers (1992) redefines and highlights the counselor's role as one of performing vital duties within a guidance curriculum that is integrated into the educational mainstream of the school. This model can be used in facilitating systems change that can make student services an integral part of the educational process. The ILCD can assist school faculty in assessing their values and adopting behaviors that lead to a more inviting school. Since there might likely be resistance to the idea of integrated student services, schools can adapt the ILCD when instituting change.
*Special education service delivery system is a blueprint of organized activities for educating students with disabilities.*	Special Education Programs Special education delivery system processes can be used in conceptualizing and operating a comprehensive student services system. Sarkees-Wircenski and Scott (1995) define special education as specially designed instruction at no cost to the parent, to meet the unique needs of eligible students with disabilities. Special education service delivery systems vary from school to school, from school district to school district, and from person to person (Freeman & Gray, 1989; Lathen, 1983; Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995). The delivery system should provide a blueprint which describes and sequences prescribed actions constructed to deliver specially designed instruction to students with disabilities (Lathen, 1983). Additionally, legislation has been passed to ensure the educational rights of individuals from special populations. Special education has made a difference in the education and lives of students with disabilities. High school student services personnel can draw on the adaptable and long-established attributes of special education programs. According to Lathen (1983), the sources and types of services delivered by the special education service delivery system include the following: Administrative and supervisory services Evaluation and assessment services Planning and placement services Instructional and instructional support services Parent-related services Community-based special education service related agencies (p. 51) These services are delivered through processes that are designed to identify students for special education referral. refer the student for special education assessment. evaluate suspected exceptional education needs. plan individual education programs (IEP). make placement decisions. implement and evaluate instruction.
*School-based support services can be grouped into direct and indirect support services.*	School-based support services that are made available to students from special populations can be grouped into two categories--direct support services and indirect support services (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995). Direct support services refer to working directly with students in the following ways: In the vocational and applied technology education classroom In the vocational and applied technology education laboratories In a resource classroom, by providing parallel instruction based on the vocational and applied technology education curriculum By teaching concepts By redesigning handouts By outlining chapter questions By highlighting and color-coding texts By assisting with the completion of daily assignments By checking weekly assignments By motivating students in the class By providing study sheets By reading tests to the students By giving further explanations or demonstrations of what has been taught (p. 584) Indirect support extends beyond directly instructing students. The following are indirect services that support personnel can provide to vocational and applied technology education instructors (Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1993, cited in Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott 1995). Support personnel can suggest methods that may help ensure success for students using competency-based curricula, motivational techniques, adapted instructional strategies, teaching techniques, and evaluation methods. help plan lessons and activities. help with instruction. develop class review sheets that reinforce the instructor's lessons. write tests. proctor tests. operate audiovisual equipment. take students on field trips to reinforce a lesson they may have had in class. (p. 584) Special education programs and practices can provide relevant information in enhancing student achievement by making essential student services available to all. There is also a clear connection between the processes involved in developing special education and student services delivery systems.
*Programs for at-risk students are designed to encourage students to remain in and complete school.*	Programs and Services for At-Risk Students Support services are crucial in making programs for at-risk students (e.g., dropout prevention programs) work. Keeping students in school is one of the challenges that educators face today. Statistics show that a huge proportion of our high school students are unable to complete high school or choose to drop out (National Center on Education and the Economy, 1990). The National Forum on Youth at Risk reports that "as many as 30% of the nation's youth are thought to be `at risk' in some way--at risk of failing to get the education and skills they need to become productive adults, adults who will be personally happy and successful and who will contribute to the nation's future" (Education Commission of the States, 1988, p. 1). Brodinsky and Keough (1989) report that at-risk students include those who are not learning to read or compute learning to hate school dropping out of school becoming hooked on drugs drifting into crime becoming sexually active too soon getting pregnant becoming despondent and suicidal failing to acquire skills needed for employment failing to acquire the understanding needed for citizenship failing to acquire habits of work drifting into and remaining in poverty becoming dependent on welfare throughout life placing their own children in future cycles of risk (p. 7) Forces that place students at risk include those that (1) stem from society (e.g., poverty, hardships that come with minority status, weakening of home influence); (2) originate with the school and educational programs (e.g., the troubled curriculum, unsuitable standards for large numbers of students); and (3) come from within the student (e.g., emotional factors that lower self-esteem). Several programs, projects, and approaches have been carried out to address this critical issue.
The followiwng program components are essential in student retention and workforce preparation: remediation world-of-work experience supportive services personnel development	Programs for at-risk students that work have been documented across the nation (Brodinsky & Keough, 1989; Council of Chief State School Offices, 1987; Duckenfield & Swanson, 1992; Education Commission of the States, 1988; Orr, 1987a, 1987b). To sustain high school students throughout a program, most of these programs provide incentives or rewards for short-term accomplishments such as good attendance and academic improvement. Components of these programs that have proven vital in retaining students in a program and preparing them for entry in the workforce include remediation, world-of-work exposure, supportive services, and personal development. A review of these programs for at-risk students reveal several aspects that can be adapted by student services personnel in helping high school students become successful in school and in life.
*Comprehensive student services systems can increase the success of all students.*	The need to relate education and work more effectively cannot be overemphasized. It is evident that all our youth need much assistance to become competitive in today's and tomorrow's world market. To keep pace with rapidly changing technology and other workplace demands, educators, businesses, parents, and the community have to collaborate to provide all students with a high-quality American education and training system that includes the delivery of essential student services. The NCRVE's Office of Student Services recognizes the need for a comprehensive student services system to enhance the success of all high school students.

CHAPTER 1

Definition of the Term Student Services

Postsecondary Level

Secondary Level

Career Development/Education

Special Education Programs

Programs and Services for At-Risk Students