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CHAPTER 4
BUILDING A SCHOOL-TO-WORK SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES
WINIFRED I. WARNAT*
School-to-Work Reform in the 1990s
The 1990s have marked a period of major reform for vocational-technical
education in the United States. It has been a time for finding new ways to
prepare young people to enter the work force, and for establishing new visions
of reform. The reform was heralded by federal legislation beginning with the
Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990
(Perkins), followed by the School-to-Work Opportunities (STWO) Act of 1994, and
now, the planned reauthorization of the Perkins Act in 1996.
Driven by an expanding global economy challenging U.S. competitiveness, and by
the shortage of an adequately skilled work force responsive to advancing
technology, work force preparation is a national priority for the first time in
U.S. history. Several issues have been central to the debate over reform:
providing opportunities and access for all youth; strengthening local
leadership; and building partnerships with employers, especially small- and
mid-sized firms. It is no longer enough to instill skills in the working
population. Now, the education and training system must help individuals and
firms become more flexible and innovative in the face of monumental economic
change. The population most affected by these reform efforts are 15- to
24-year-olds, making the reform of that level of education and training
especially critical.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the reform movement in the United
States as the nation strives to build a new, national school-to-work system.
Those efforts, some quite visionary, are contributing to the evolution of an
innovative work force.
It is important to note that in the United States, the scope of systemic reform
efforts are national, not federal: Each of the 50 states designs its own
system. Each state system, uniquely designed to accommodate the particular
needs of that state, can be viewed as a subsystem of the "national
school-to-work system." All state school-to-work systems share common
components with variations on how they are configured and implemented.
The Recent History of Reform
The United States has been aggressively involved in education reform since
1983, when the report A Nation at Risk (National Commission on
Excellence in Education, 1983) was issued. That report focused on the need for
reform in elementary and secondary education. By the late 1980s, the issue of
how to reform the preparation of young adults for work began receiving
increased attention. In 1989, the governors of all 50 states came to an
agreement on six national education goals. One of those goals focused attention
on the need for a literate and high-skilled work force. In 1990, another
significant report, America's Choice: High Skills or Low Wages!
(Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, 1990), presented a
schema for reform in work force preparation that centered on skill standards
and the attainment of a certificate of mastery. In 1991, the report of the
Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, What Work Requires of
Schools, known as the SCANS report, laid out those skills considered
essential to a technologically competent, globally competitive work force.
Then, in 1992, with the advent of the Clinton Administration, education and
training for work was identified as a national priority.
Unique to school-to-work reform in the early 1990s was its being driven largely
by federal legislation. Four legislative authorities in particular shaped this
reform in the United States.
The Perkins Act took a dramatic shift in 1990 from being concentrated on
special populations to an emphasis on program innovation and improvement, with
attention now on education reform and systemic change. The STWO Act stresses
building a new delivery system and highlights the essential components of a
quality school-to-work program. The Perkins reauthorization is taking further
the combination of systemic reform and program improvement. Providing the
framework for these reform efforts is the Goals 2000: Educate America Act that
is reshaping how we educate around occupational and academic skill standards.
With the change in political climate brought by the election of a Republican
majority in Congress in 1994, the locus for school-to-work reform has shifted
some from the federal level to the states. But those four major pieces of
federal legislation will remain the building blocks of education-for-work
reform in the United States, and they merit individual discussion in this
chapter. Together, the acts give a framework to a reform movement that the
states will fill in.
The first significant reform legislation is the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
Applied Technology Education Act of 1990, which kicked-off vocational-technical
education reform efforts. It represented a dramatic change in the direction of
federal legislation, which had previously emphasized access for special
populations. For the most part, Perkins focuses on in-school 15- to
24-year-olds. The themes for the 1990 Perkins Act were program improvement and
accountability. Perkins has five important foci:
- promoting integrated vocational and academic curricula and instruction
- developing technical preparation education (Tech Prep) programs
- promoting participation of special populations, especially the
economically disadvantaged.
- developing state systems of performance standards and measures
- incorporating "all aspects of the industry" into curricula and
instruction
Perkins involves the yearly distribution of $1.2 billion to the
states on a formula grant basis. All states receive federal funds for secondary
and postsecondary (namely two-year community colleges) vocational-technical
education under Perkins. For every federal $1 of investment, the states
contribute approximately $10.
Curricula Integration
All states are required to implement vocational and academic integration, a new
concept that was introduced in Perkins. Integration entails vocational and
academic teachers working together to infuse academic content into vocational
curricula, and vice versa. There are numerous approaches to integration of
which contextual learning is an important aspect. Local efforts at integration
are more pronounced at the secondary level than at the postsecondary. The
localities and states are left to decide how to go about implementation.
Perkins gives little guidance. Integration is an important strategy of systemic
reform.
Tech Prep Programs
All states also receive funds to develop and implement Tech Prep education.
Tech Prep promotes the seamless linkage of secondary and postsecondary
vocational-technical education programs beginning with the eleventh grade
(approximately age 16) through two years of postsecondary, occupationally
specific instruction, culminating in a certificate or associate degree. Tech
Prep education is the most prescriptive program defined in Perkins and requires
a structured sequence of courses. An amazing grassroots support has developed
around Tech Prep. The enthusiasm is both a strength and a weakness--a strength
in stimulating tremendous growth in programs and student participation; a
weakness in the haphazard application of the Tech Prep name to many programs
that do not qualify as Tech Prep programs. Tech Prep is also an important
strategy of systemic reform.
Special Populations
Special populations encompass the increasingly diverse American population,
including minorities, the disabled, new immigrants, and students with limited
proficiency in English. They also represent the areas of greatest population
growth. (Although not considered a special population per se, girls are
included under the rubric of gender equity.) Perkins targets funds to schools
with high concentrations of individuals who are members of special populations.
The National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE) (1994), a
Congressionally mandated evaluation of Perkins implementation, found that
special populations are over-represented in vocational programs. Historically,
the federal emphasis has been on providing access, but NAVE recommends a shift
in focus to one of assuring access to quality programs. Special attention will
continue to be given to special populations.
Performance Standards and Measures
Under Perkins, states are required to set up and implement program performance
systems. Perkins requires the states to measure gains in learning and
competency. In addition, states must choose to measure at least one more of the
following outcomes: occupational competency attainment; job or work skill
attainment; retention in school; and/or placement in further education, the
military, or employment. All states had established performance systems by
September 1992, which are now in the implementation stage. Implementation in
the localities has moved slowly, with many school districts focused on the
implementation of other Perkins priorities. Performance standards systems are
an important aspect of systemic reform.
All Aspects of the Industry
All aspects of the industry (AAI) is a concept introduced in Perkins. This
approach involves providing students with experience and understanding of all
aspects of the industry that students are preparing to enter. AAI covers
planning; management; finances; technical skills; labor and community issues;
and health, safety, and environmental issues. The intent is to broaden
preparation away from occupationally specific education and training to
encourage career flexibility across an industry sector. While AAI is receiving
increasing attention, to date, implementation has been minimal. Perkins
provides little guidance for the implementation of AAI, which is also
considered an important aspect of systemic reform.
Perkins, with its emphasis on changing how schools prepare young people for
initial entry into the work force, sets the stage for developing a new
framework for work force preparation. The innovations highlight linkages:
linkages between vocational and academic curricula, between secondary and
postsecondary occupational programs, and, to a lesser degree, between schools
and workplaces. Increased attention to accountability is expected from the
states through the performance systems of standards and measures they develop
that address program quality and outcomes.
The next critical legislative authority driving reform in vocational-technical
education is the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994. The intent of Goals
2000 is to provide a framework for meeting the eight National Education Goals
(see Appendix). Goals 2000 centers on the adoption of content and student
performance standards and focuses on elementary and secondary education. Its
purpose is to provide the framework for the reauthorization of all federal
education legislation. Its first appropriation, in 1994, was $105 million.
States are to develop and implement an improvement plan for meeting the
National Education Goals. In addition, states are expected to coordinate their
efforts with the STWO legislation. States are urged to use the following five
strategies specified in Goals 2000:
- developing content standards and performance standards for all students
(These standards must be coordinated with standards developed under
Perkins.)
- developing and implementing state assessments
- aligning local or state curricula, instructional materials, and state
assessments with the state's content and student performance standards
- familiarizing teachers with the standards, and developing quality
instruction within the content areas
- improving the state systems of teacher and school administrator
preparation and licensure
Directly related to education for work reform is
the establishment of the National Skill Standards Board (NSSB). The NSSB was
created under Goals 2000 to stimulate the development of a voluntary national
system of skill standards. Housed in the U.S. Department of Labor, the
28-member board consists of representatives primarily from business and
organized labor and from education, community-based organizations, and local
and state governments. The Secretaries of Education, Labor, and Commerce are
also members. The NSSB's functions consist of the identification of
occupational clusters; the establishment of voluntary partnerships to develop
standards; research, dissemination, and coordination; and the endorsement of
skill standards systems. The NSSB addresses a critical dimension of the STWO
Act.
Goals 2000 provides the infrastructure for redesigning kindergarten through
twelfth-grade education, including vocational-technical education. It
encourages the states to institute content and performance standards (both
academic and skill standards) for all students. In a sense, Perkins was
prescient in its requirement to develop state systems of performance standards
and measures. Goals 2000 takes standards the next step to student performance,
and these standards must be coordinated with the Perkins-established
performance systems. It is around this standards framework that secondary as
well as postsecondary vocational-technical education reform will move forward.
As the third piece of federal legislation driving change in work force
preparation, the STWO Act of 1994 provides the systemic framework for
vocational-technical education for work reform. The STWO Act is built on
partnerships and focuses on the 15- to 24-year-old student population. It is
administered jointly by the U.S. Departments of Education and Labor. The STWO
Act represents a significant philosophical shift in the focus of federal
legislation that prepares young people for work. First of all, it focuses on
all students, breaking down the tradition of individuals choosing either the
college track or the vocational track. Secondly, it concentrates on preparing
young people for both college and careers, so that they can choose which
education-career path to take and when. No one is excluded from the opportunity
to continue with further education. Third, education is no longer the sole
domain of schools. In STWO legislation, workplaces are seen as
education-learning environments along with secondary and postsecondary schools.
The STWO Act also introduces the concept of career majors and offers a variety
of education-career pathway strategies. This legislation is scheduled to expire
after ten years by which time all states should have received funds to support
the development of their school-to-work systems. Federal funds, $250 million in
Fiscal Year 1994, are viewed as venture capital. Local and state STWO systems
are to be integrated with Goals 2000 systems.
The STWO legislation identifies three essential components of a quality
school-to-work program: (1) the school-based learning component, (2) the
work-based learning component, and (3) connecting activities. All STWO programs
require the integration of vocational and academic curricula, linkage between
secondary and postsecondary education, and linkage between education and
employers. The STWO Act identifies a number of strategies for building quality
school-to-work programs. Although not the only viable strategies, those noted
have most of the component elements described in the law. They include
cooperative education, Tech Prep education, youth apprenticeship, school to
apprenticeship, career academies, and school-based enterprises.
School-Based Learning Component
The school-based learning component encourages career exploration by the middle
school years and no later than the seventh grade (approximately age 12)--long
before the student enters the eleventh grade. By the eleventh grade, students
should have selected their career majors. Students should also have a program
of study that prepares them for entry into postsecondary education and meets
the requirements for a skill certificate. The program of study should also meet
academic content standards established under Goals 2000. Integrated curriculum
that incorporates AAI is an important element, as is the linkage between
secondary and postsecondary programs.
Work-Based Learning Component
The work-based learning component focuses on providing students with a planned
program of training and work experience coordinated with the school-based
learning component. Workplace mentoring is the primary instructional strategy
with instruction concentrated on developing workplace competencies, including
the development of work attitudes, and employability and participative skills.
All students are expected to have supervised work experience of some sort.
Instruction should emphasize AAI.
Connecting Activities
The third component, connecting activities, may prove to be the most innovative
aspect of the STWO Act. For the first time, legislation has addressed the need
to provide incentives for employers, especially in small- and mid-sized firms,
to participate. Through the connecting activities, employers can receive
technical assistance, services, and training to build their capacity to
participate. Both schools and employers can obtain assistance to integrate
school-based and work-based learning, as well as academic and occupational
curricula. The legislation also provides for a new type of educator, a school
site mentor, who serves as a liaison among the student, employer, school, and
parents. Matching students with the work-based learning opportunities of
employers is a major responsibility of the school-site mentor. Training is also
to be provided for teachers, workplace and school site mentors, and counselors.
The Implementation of School-to-Work
The implementation of the STWO Act involves awarding grants to state
school-to-work partnerships. These partnerships are made up of representatives
from key state agencies involved in some way with education for work. In 1994,
the first eight states were awarded implementation grants. Another 19 were
selected in 1995, with all states expected to have implementation grants by
2003. Initially, all states received development grants, with continuations for
those states not yet ready to receive implementation grants. Grants are also
being awarded to promising local school-to-work partnerships and to urban-rural
partnerships geared to stimulate school-to-work development in economically
disadvantaged areas.
The STWO Act focuses specifically on the restructuring of education for work.
It espouses a partnering approach for reshaping the delivery system at local,
state, and federal levels. The STWO Act builds on and expands the innovations
introduced in Perkins. It reinforces and furthers the standards framework
instituted in Goals 2000. It broadens the schooling framework to include
work-based learning, and it brings in employers as full players in education
for work. STWO legislation actually represents a paradigm shift in how the U.S.
views and is approaching work force preparation.
Though it is still early in the life of the legislation, some lessons and
trends have become apparent. The legislation has indeed been effective in
stimulating local partnerships. Small- and medium-sized enterprises have become
more involved than in the past. In general, there has been a flurry of local
activity, as partners work to integrate curriculum, connect programs to
postsecondary education, and struggle to create viable work-based learning
experiences.
But the implementation period has also provided some hints of future
challenges. For example, local partnerships face a thorny marketing challenge
in promoting school-to-work programs as both a secondary and a postsecondary
opportunity. In many localities, people have interpreted school-to-work
primarily as a secondary-level program, which cripples its potential
contribution to work force development. In addition, a suspicion between
education and labor/employment offices permeates local, state, and federal
school-to-work efforts. Philosophical disagreements have already arisen in
school-to-work programs about whether they should produce future workers for
the employers, or focus on curriculum content and development of the student.
Both goals are compatible, but can produce friction during planning and
implementation stages.
In a related vein, the early years of implementation have also shown the
potential for the politicization of school-to-work. In some states, the
governors have become heavily involved in the introduction of school-to-work
programs in their states. While their leadership has proved vital to achieving
change, it has also politicized school-to-work. Since the governor has the
authority to determine the fiscal agent, he or she may not rely on the
traditional agent, the schools. Some have given the authority to economic
development agencies, or employment and labor agencies. Their choice of agent
has already had a profound effect in some states on the nature of the state's
school-to-work effort.
The current Perkins Act was up for renewal by Congress in 1995. The
Reauthorization of Perkins is anticipated to be completed in 1997, though,
depending on legislative and political developments, it may be subject to
modification or consolidation with other education and training programs. It is
the fourth step in the education for work reform movement. As the 1990 Perkins
Act changed significantly from the 1984 vocational legislation (from a focus on
special populations to a focus on program improvement), the 1996 Perkins Act is
likely to be vastly different from its predecessors. That it will build on the
framework provided by Goals 2000 and the STWO Act is already evident--the scope
of Perkins concentrates even more on the 15- to 24-year-old population. A
number of critical policy issues are shaping the dialogue around the
reauthorization.
Systemic Change and Education Reform
The relationship of Perkins to achieving the National Education Goals and
connecting to education reform is implicit in the reauthorization. The
challenge is to systemically reshape the vocational-technical and
education-for-work delivery systems into a cohesive, comprehensive, and
efficient venture. To accomplish that goal, reauthorization must build bridges
and find the interconnections between Goals 2000, the STWO Act, and other
related education legislation such as the Adult Education Act, the Higher
Education Act, and the Improving America's Schools Act (the new elementary and
secondary education legislation). Certainly the new principles of serving all
students and preparing all students for both college and career fit the spirit
of education reform.
Program Innovation and Improvement
To what extent Perkins will continue to stimulate program innovation and
improvement is yet to be determined. Innovations such as curriculum
integration, Tech Prep education, and AAI need more time and support to become
bona fide strategies of systemic change and education reform. Perkins already
reinforces key tenets of the STWO legislation, namely the linkages between
occupational and academic education, secondary and postsecondary programs, and,
to some degree, school-based and work-based learning.
Teacher Education and Professional Development
In the United States, undergraduate and graduate programs preparing education
administrators, instructors, and counselors for this field are being disbanded.
The new legislation beginning with the 1990 Perkins Act introduces new thinking
and new strategies about the types of educators needed. Indeed, the STWO Act
sets the stage for a new breed of educator, a hybrid educator able to bridge
the communication and learning cultures of both the school and the
workplace--someone who is comfortable and effective in both worlds. Preparation
for this new type of educator will necessitate the development of new
"break-the-mold" teacher education programs. And there is the commensurate need
for extensive professional development of those already involved with teaching
and learning, whether in the school or in the workplace. In addition, new
constructs, methodologies, and practices that contribute to new learning
modalities are needed. Qualifications and credentialling also need to be
examined.
Employer Involvement
The STWO legislation clearly brings employers into the business of education.
The assumption is that employer involvement in education for work is good. That
being the case, what then do employers need to know to be effective educators?
Employers need help in getting involved in education for work. The involvement
of employers from SMEs, where most job creation and job growth is occurring, is
an important consideration. The part-time employment in which most high school
students (an estimated 80 percent) are currently engaged might also be explored
as another possible means for providing students with supervised work
experience opportunities.
Standards and Accountability
Perkins, Goals 2000, and the STWO Act all address standards, both in content
and program. The challenge is how to tie them together. The dialogue needs to
address both academic and occupational standards, and both student and program
performance standards. The relationship of Perkins and the STWO Act with the
new NSSB also needs to be worked out. Not to be overlooked is the importance of
sustaining currency, relevancy, and portability of skills.
Special Populations
Perkins' attention to serving special populations will continue. However, the
context for doing so is likely to change. With the STWO Act, the notion of
inclusivity by serving all students is presented. How to serve all students and
still provide special populations with the attention they need presents a major
challenge. The targeting of funds, providing special services, and assuring
access to quality programs are dilemmas that will need to be addressed.
Coordination and Governance
Coordination of Perkins with Goals 2000, the STWO Act, and other related
legislation poses yet another challenge to school-to-work reform: partnership
with other agencies at the local, state, and federal levels. The recent effort
to consolidate various federal laws related to work force education and
training underscores the importance of close cooperation between departments
and agencies. Consolidation could mean bringing together under a single
authority those education programs involved with education for work, those
legislative authorities serving a common age group, or most monumentally, all
legislation that addresses work force preparation and training in any capacity.
The Perkins Reauthorization provides the opportunity to bring together into a
cohesive whole the contributions of Perkins, Goals 2000, and the STWO Act in
the reform of school-based vocational-technical education and education for
work. Perkins focuses on programs, and the reauthorization will fill in the
frameworks offered in Goals 2000 and STWO legislation. The reauthorization
provides an opportunity to clarify the design of the vocational-technical
education delivery system in total. Most importantly, it addresses the
substance and the means of teaching and learning, and thinking and doing as
they relate to preparing the student to make college and career choices.
Reform of vocational-technical education in the United States is well underway.
The reform is demanding a number of significant shifts in thinking and
direction. Vocational-technical education is shifting to education for work;
job preparation is shifting to career preparation; and student choices between
college or vocational tracks are being recast as college and career pathways.
Other shifts include a focus from special populations to all students; from a
separate vocational track to integration with regular education; and from an
emphasis on secondary education to one on postsecondary. Individual autonomy is
evolving toward teamwork and partnering, and federal emphasis on compliance and
oversight is shifting to technical assistance and customer service. The federal
role is that of change agent promoting those shifts.
The new system of education for work is beginning to take shape. Perkins, with
its school-based focus, contributes the goals of integration of vocational and
academic education, Tech Prep education, AAI, and state systems of performance
standards. Goals 2000 contributes a framework based on content and student
performance standards. The STWO Act, with its work-based focus, contributes
governance and operational structures. It also provides model programs for
local and state development. The Perkins reauthorization offers the opportunity
to further the application of standards for both student and program
performance, the improvement of programs complementary to the school-to-work
model, and the participation of special populations in quality programs.
In the United States, federal legislation is being used as an instrument for
reshaping how young people are being prepared for work. The federal role is as
catalyst; the local and state role is as activators. Major changes are being
stimulated in the structure of the secondary school, the relationship between
secondary and postsecondary education, and the nature of employer involvement.
New teaching and learning strategies are being developed. New forms of content
and curriculum design are being explored. The players involved in education for
work are being expanded and redefined. No more is the preparation of young
people for work the sole domain of either the school or the workplace.
Responsibility and participation are to be shared. Educators now include not
only school-based instructors, administrators, and counselors, but also
workplace mentors, supervisors, and managers. And all need to know how to
communicate and function effectively in one another's environments.
It is hoped that this developing school-to-work system will bring cohesion and
quality to the highly decentralized American approach to preparing a
technically competent, globally competitive work force.
In the period since the San Diego U.S.-EU Conference, the political climate
affecting federal policy on school-to-work has changed dramatically. With
Congress now reflecting a Republican majority, and more influential in setting
the political agenda, the original vision of building a school-to-work system
is likely to be significantly altered. States will be expected to bear a larger
share of responsibility in creating school-to-work systems. In addition,
changes in federal budget priorities, combined with a sustained interest in
balancing the budget, may lead to reduced or consolidated federal education and
training efforts. A number of common threads remain, however:
- Systemic education reform in how young people are prepared for careers
remains a common concern.
- Consolidation of federal programs that address career preparation and work
force development is essential.
- Support for the participation of special needs populations remains a
priority.
- Preparation of young people for careers continues to be essential.
- Shared understanding exists that the federal role, while reduced, will
remain important in providing national data, technical assistance, and
accountability.
States will be given increased responsibility for career
preparation that leads to desired outcomes; the federal role providing support
to further systemic change, program improvement, and integration with
school-to-work systems becomes even more important. Progress in education
reform will depend on linking the STWO Act with other key pieces of federal
education legislation such as Goals 2000, the reauthorization of Perkins, and
the Improving America's Schools Act.
Whatever legislative changes occur, the nation's goal remains the same:
ensuring that American youth and adults possess the occupational and academic
skills necessary to compete in the world economy. The focus of
vocational-technical education is changing. Localities and states will have
more responsibility for fostering new public-private sector partnering
arrangements and performance standards systems. These fifty state systems,
which take a variety of approaches to career preparation, will provide the
nation's students with new and comprehensive options for preparing for careers
and further study.
*Director of Vocational-Technical Education, U.S.
Department of Education. An earlier form of this chapter was given by Dr. Warnat
as a kenote address at the international conference, "Directions: Education
and Training for 15-24 Year Olds,"held in Sydney, Australia, September 28-30,1994.
References
Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce. (1990). America's
choice: High skills or low wages! Rochester, NY: National Center on
Education and the Economy.
National Assessment of Vocational Education. (1994). Final report to
Congress. Vols. I-V. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk:
The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. (1991). What work
requires of schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.
U.S. Congress. (1990, September 25). Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied
Technology Education Act of 1990. Public Law 101-392. 101st Congress.
U.S. Congress. (1994, March 31). Goals 2000: Educate America Act. Public
Law 103-227. 103rd Congress.
U.S. Congress. (1994, May 4). School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994.
Public Law 103-239. 103rd Congress.
1. School Readiness. By the year 2000, all children in America will start
school ready to learn.
2. School Completion. By the year 2000, the high school graduation rate will
increase to at least 90 percent.
3. Student Achievement and Citizenship. By the year 2000, all students will
leave grades 4, 8, and 12 having demonstrated competency over challenging
subject matter including English, mathematics, science, foreign languages,
civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography; and every
school in America will ensure that all students learn to use their minds well,
so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning, and
productive employment in our Nation's economy.
4. Teacher Education and Professional Development. By the year 2000, the
Nation's teaching force will have access to programs for the continued
improvement of their professional skills and the opportunity to acquire the
knowledge and skills needed to instruct and prepare all American students for
the next century.
5. Mathematics and Science. By the year 2000, United States students will be
first in the world in mathematics and science achievement.
6. Adult Literacy and Lifelong Learning. By the year 2000, every adult American
will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete
in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of
citizenship.
7. Safe, Disciplined, and Alcohol- and Drug-Free Schools. By the year 2000,
every school in the United States will be free of drugs, violence, and the
unauthorized presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined
environment conducive to learning.
8. Parental Participation. By the year 2000, every school will promote
partnerships that will increase parental involvement and participation in
promoting social, emotional, and academic growth of children.
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