Information concerning the five selected associations and their mission/position statements was gathered via the Internet and written information (brochures, and so on) provided by association representatives. This information was compiled to provide an overview of the associations' written positions. Information gathered was organized into three different areas, including associations' (1) career development roles, (2) participation in STW initiatives, and (3) support of school-to-work/careers efforts at the middle school level. Associations that participated in the study included the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) (1990a, 1990b, 1991), American Vocational Association (AVA) (1997a-1997e), International Technology Education Association (ITEA) (1997a, 1997b), National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) (1996), and National Middle School Association (NMSA) (1995, 1997a, 1997b).
Career Development
Examination of the informational materials revealed that the five associations focused on two areas of career development: (1) national workforce preparation and (2) individual career preparation. The educational association material collected indicated a need for educators to recognize the "technological, social, and political changes" taking place in the world and understand how these changes must impact the teaching and learning that takes place every day in our nation's schools. Not only will schools and their students be impacted, but workplaces and workers as well. The five associations indicated that they would "support promising and successful educational practices" that advanced the workforce education cause; and vowed to provide "educational leadership in developing a competitive workforce." Comprehensive career education was viewed as a viable solution to the educational and economic challenges that our nation faces. For the United States to remain a competitive player in the global marketplace and experience future growth, associations believed educators must develop fully the "academic and occupational skills of all segments of the population." All students must acquire the "employability skills" that will give them the edge to succeed in the workforce. For example, educators must advance the "technological capabilities" and "leadership skills" of students at all educational levels. An AVA (1997a) brochure, School-to-Work Partners, stated, "The competencies employers usually seek include computer literacy, analytical thinking and problem solving skills, communication skills, flexibility, adaptability, and initiative." An ASCA (1991) brochure, Building Career Counseling Programs, stated that the successful job applicant must be able to "work as a team member, communicate, solve problems, use technologies, adapt to change, and be drug-free."
The creation of "productive learning environments" for all students was also a topic focused on in the association literature. The associations agreed that career development activities and experiences must be designed to help individuals learn "efficiently and effectively" and develop their "educational, social, career, and personal strengths." Increasingly, the job market seeks applicants who can communicate effectively, think critically, and adapt swiftly. These associations planned to advance student career and workforce understanding and participation by providing appropriate developmental tasks and challenges.
School-to-Work Initiatives
STW efforts were mentioned specifically by some associations and were indirectly referred to by others. Some associations strongly supported the STW curriculum emphasis, while others remained wary and watchful. The STW curriculum initiative was viewed by AVA as a "new approach to learning in America's schools that links students, schools, and workplaces." Through relevant and meaningful STW activities, classroom instruction, and varied work experiences, students were expected to achieve a "graduated understanding of the world of work." It was deemed "imperative that business and education leaders work together to make STW transition a permanent component of the nation's educational framework."
Associations were uniformly committed to collaborating with education and business leaders to ensure that students were equipped with the skills and knowledge needed for success in today's high performance workplace. Career development activities helped students to investigate appropriate job opportunities consistent with their interests, skills, and abilities and encouraged students to examine the future trends and needs of the workforce. The associations consistently viewed career development activities and experiences as a way "to provide students with the opportunity to pursue further education, seek additional occupational skill development, or move directly into careers." In addition, career development or STW paths were not viewed as "a fixed choice" but rather as facilitators of change. Three of the five associations (AVA, ASCA, and NASSP) felt that students should maintain the right to choose a career path, change career directions, and have the "solid academic and technical skills to make the transition work." Learning environments supporting this transition and the move from school to the working world were typically those that "integrated academic competencies with occupational development" and provided "challenging content in partnership with appropriate learning strategies." School-to-work/careers education was not viewed by the associations as a singular event or isolated course, rather they stressed that it be integrated throughout the student's school experience and expand beyond the school and into the community.
Middle School School-to-Work/Career Efforts
Most of the association literature we reviewed focused on the career development needs of secondary school students. For the most part, the career development and career planning needs of middle-level students were mentioned in passing or not at all. For instance, the NASSP literature did commit to the "continuous improvement of middle-level and high schools for the 21st century," yet failed to specifically mention middle school students in their association goals and objectives.
The ASCA highlighted the importance of educational and occupational exploration and career planning for seventh and eighth graders. They indicated support for the following exploration and planning competencies outlined in the National Career Development Guidelines: (1) knowledge of the benefits of educational achievement to career opportunities; (2) understanding of the relationship between work and learning; (3) skills to locate, understand, and use career information; (4) knowledge of skills necessary to seek and obtain jobs; (5) understanding of how work relates to the needs and functions of the economy and society; (6) skills to make decisions; (7) knowledge of the interrelationship of life roles; (8) knowledge of different occupations and changing male/female roles; (9) understanding the process of career planning; (10) demonstrating effective skills in working with others; (11) showing an appreciation for the similarities and differences among people; (12) describing individual skills and aptitudes required to fulfill life roles; (13) identifying strategies for managing personal finances; and (14) demonstrating skills needed to obtain and keep a job. However, activities beyond the level of exploration and awareness were not considered appropriate for this age and maturity level.
Middle school students were viewed by both the NMSA and ITEA as "curious but not ready for planning" and unable to demonstrate "responsible decision-making." High schoolers, on the other hand, were seen as developmentally ready to "understand how individual personality, abilities, and interests relate to career goals; understand how education relates to college majors, further training and /or entry into the job market; and demonstrate transferable skills that can apply to a variety of occupations and changing work requirements."
The information made available by the participating associations supported career development activities K-12, and STW opportunities for secondary students. However, the literature also reflected the disagreement among professionals as to the appropriateness of STW opportunities and intensive career exposure for middle-level students.