• DEFINITIONS AND PURPOSES FOR WORK-BASED LEARNING
• TYPES OF WORK-BASED LEARNING
• LINKING WORK-BASED LEARNING TO CLASSROOM LEARNING
• LESSONS LEARNED
• CONCLUSION: WBL IS WORTH THE TROUBLE

      Work-based learning (WBL) is a hot topic. A recent review of the literature attributes the growing interest in WBL to an "emerging learning-based economy" (Urquiola, Stern, Horn, Dornsife, Chi, Williams, Merritt, Hughes, and Bailey, 1997, p. 120) where workplaces are seen "as part of the education system of the future" (Hamilton and Hamilton, 1997a). The workplace has a lot to offer students: a context for academic learning (Steinberg, 1997a), direct preparation for adult responsibilities (Urquiola, et al., 1997), one-on-one relationships with adults, and in some cases an income. The concept of using the workplace as an alternative learning environment is not new; it has been around since the advent of vocational education in the Smith Hughes Act of 1917. In the past, WBL in schools came in the form of cooperative education and work experience and in most cases was limited to students who took vocational education classes (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997). These programs stressed the importance of job skill acquisition and exploration of the world of work. With the passage of the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA), work-based learning programs have grown to include all students, whether or not they take vocational classes. The difference between former WBL programs and current efforts is the idea that work experience, if linked carefully to the classroom, can enhance student academic knowledge and skill. This new emphasis on classroom learning has drawn in many teachers who may not have considered adding work-place experiences to their curriculum. Feature articles on work-based learning in Educational Leadership, the Harvard Education Letter, and Phi Delta Kappan reveal a broader interest in what was once considered "voc-ed" only.

      Teachers and administrators from the National Center for Research in Vocational Education's (NCRVE) Urban Schools Network have five years' experience with developing and implementing work-based learning programs. NCRVE formed the Network in 1992 to provide technical assistance to urban school districts implementing the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act of 1990 (for an overview of NCRVE's Urban Schools Network, see Chapter One). While the primary focus for Network sites was the creation of integrated curriculum and the implementation of Tech Prep, many sites included a WBL component. Based on Network experiences and current research, this chapter will outline definitions, purposes, and types of work-based learning and will share ways to link and ensure quality WBL with classroom learning.

DEFINITIONS AND PURPOSES FOR
WORK-BASED LEARNING

      A definition for work-based learning is hard to pin down. Theoretically it has been defined as a planned program of work experience linked to school (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997) that contributes to the intellectual and career development of students (U.S. Congress, 1995, p. 13). Practically it has been defined as an "employment-related activity" in which students are "actively engaged" in producing goods and services in a location where the "primary activity" is producing goods and services (Hamilton and Hamilton, 1997a, pp. 6, 7). The term work-based learning, originates from Section 103 of the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act, where it is defined as follows:

      Urban Schools Network sites define WBL in a variety of ways as well. Many sites had or were developing WBL programs prior to the passage of the STWOA. At Lake-Clifton Eastern High School in Baltimore, Maryland, one administrator defines work-based learning as "opportunities for students to learn to earn, opportunities for students to work to learn... an opportunity for students to change their attitudes and perceptions about the world of work." At Putnam West High School in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, according to one teacher, "it is anything that we do that gets students out in the business sites."

      In most definitions of WBL, the distinguishing factor between WBL and other work experience is that students' work is school supervised and essentially linked to classroom learning. Just as there are many definitions of work-based learning, there are also many purposes for doing work-based learning.

      In an analysis of school-to-work (STW) initiatives in the United States, Urquiola and his colleagues (1997) found five "distinct possible purposes" for WBL and classified them as follows (p.123):

• acquisition of knowledge or skill related to employment in particular occupations or industries,

• career exploration and planning,

• learning "all aspects of an industry,"

• increasing personal and social competence related to work in general, and

• enhancing students' motivation and academic achievement.

      Urban Schools Network sites report similar purposes for their work-based learning initiatives. Network sites often choose types of WBL activities that match their sites' definition and purpose for doing WBL. For example, during the July 1997 focus group interviews, at least two Network sites said that they choose to implement WBL activities that increase the personal and social competence of their students. Teachers at Phelps Career High School in Washington, D.C., send their student barbers and cosmetologists to local senior citizen homes and to others who cannot afford haircuts. These students use their skills throughout the city and learn to work with people. As their principal says, "it makes everyone feel better and connects the community." At Putnam West High School in Oklahoma City, teachers encourage their health career students to volunteer at their local hospital's free clinic.

TYPES OF WORK-BASED LEARNING

      To fit the individual needs and stated purposes of each school community, work-based learning activities often take different forms. Hamilton and Hamilton (1997a, p. 6) have categorized these forms of WBL into ten main types:

• VISITS TO WORKPLACES
  
  FIELD TRIPS--one time visits to observe.
  
  JOB SHADOWING--longer-term, sometimes multiple visits to observe by following a worker.

• WORKLIKE EXPERIENCE
  
  SERVICE LEARNING AND UNPAID INTERNSHIPS-- voluntary service, not necessarily with a career focus.
  
  YOUTH-RUN ENTERPRISES--workplaces created to give youth employment and management experience.

• EMPLOYMENT
  
  YOUTH JOBS--jobs ordinarily open to teenagers but often not learning opportunities.
  
  SUBSIDIZED EMPLOYMENT TRAINING--paid work as part of a training program.
  
  COOPERATIVE EDUCATION AND PAID INTERNSHIPS--school-related work experience.
  
  YOUTH APPRENTICESHIPS--long-term (over several years) work and learning programs leading to certification.

      Network sites have implemented a variety of these WBL types (see Table 3-1) for a quick checklist of the types found at Network sites).The types of WBL found in the Urban Schools Network fall along a continuum, ranging in intensity from exposure-to-the-workplace activities like field trips (least intensive) to full integration of academic and vocational curriculum with work-site experience activities like apprenticeships (most intensive). Many sites, including Baltimore, Detroit, Harrisburg, Las Cruces, Oklahoma City, and Washington, D.C., offer this continuum of WBL experiences based on grade ranging from least intensive in grade nine to most intensive in grade twelve.

      For example, at the Harrisburg site, ninth graders go on field trips to explore career fields, tenth graders job shadow, eleventh graders start cooperative education placements, and twelfth graders engage in paid cooperative education and internships. In Las Cruces, WBL activities extend beyond grade twelve to what administrators call "grade thirteen" based on an articulation agreement with Doña Ana Community College. At the end of a student's third year in the program, which starts at grade ten, students receive a high school degree, an associate degree in Occupational Business, and 2,500 hours of structured paid work experience.

      Of the ten types of WBL, Hamilton and Hamilton (1997a) declare youth apprenticeships the "epitome" of work-based learning. According to Hamilton and Hamilton, the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act was "inspired in part `by the time honored apprenticeship concept'" (p. 1). Another widely endorsed and well-researched type of WBL is school-based enterprises (SBE), or youth run enterprises, as Hamilton and Hamilton call them. SBEs are student-designed and run businesses on a school site where students produce goods and services for their community. It has been found that SBEs often give students more room to make mistakes and provide more opportunities for learning than nonschool enterprises (Stern 1984; Stern, Stone, Hopkins, McMillion, & Crain, 1994). This finding makes school-based enterprises an attractive option for WBL, especially in communities that lack job placements for students. Network sites operate their own school-based enterprises. In Detroit, Michigan students run and operate a certified automotive service garage. Students in Brooklyn, New York operate a repair center for computers, photocopiers, and scanners; meanwhile, students in Cleveland, Ohio are planning to open a photocopy center.

      In comparing types of WBL, the question whether paid or unpaid experiences are better has often come up. Stasz and Kaganoff (1997) interpret the legislation as preferring paid experience over unpaid experiences. However, an administrator from a Network site offers a broader definition:

TABLE 3-1:
TYPES OF WBL AT URBAN SCHOOLS NETWORK SITES*

	FIELDTRIPS	JOB SHADOWING	SERVICE LEARNING	INTERNSHIPS (UNPAID)	SBE**	YOUTH JOBS
Akron
Balt-City Tech
Balt-Lake Clif.
Balt-Lansdwn
Charlotte
Cleveland
Detroit
Harrisburg
Las Cruces
Milwaukee
Nashville
New Orleans
New York
Oklahoma
Omaha
St. Paul
WashDCPenn
WashDCPhelps
	SUBSIDIZED TRAINING	CO-OP	INTERNSHIPS (PAID)	APPRENTICE- SHIPS	WORKPLACE MENTOR- SHIPS
Akron
Balt-City Tech
Balt-Lake Clif.
Balt-Lansdwn
Charlotte
Cleveland
Detroit
Harrisburg
Las Cruces
Milwaukee
Nashville
New Orleans
New York
Oklahoma
Omaha
St. Paul
WashDCPenn
WashDCPhelps

*	Primarily these types of WBL are found in Network high schools, although at some sites this information includes postsecondary findings as well.
**	I use the term SBE (school-based enterprise), which is the equivalent of Hamilton's youth run enterprises.
***	I would add to Hamilton and Hamilton's types "workplace mentorship" programs where students develop one-on-one relationships with employees in a business.

There are lots of different ways that students can get a learning experience besides collecting a paycheck. Work-based learning is not only a paid work experience, but a nonpaid work experience as well. It's job shadowing where students can follow a professional in the work force. It's mentoring. Students ought to have the options to select different opportunities, understanding that it doesn't always have a paycheck.

      Other key factors have influenced choice of WBL types for Network members. Some sites have faced the external pressures of changing relationships with business partners. For example, one of Nashville's school-to-work programs originally partnered with a large convention hotel. The hotel hired students the same way it hired regular workers. The only distinction was their title, student workers. The size of the hotel complex, the point system used for attendance, and the lack of maturity on the students' part were contributing factors in this business partner not working out. After evaluation of this workplace, Nashville site members decided to use smaller work sites such as hospitals, restaurants, retirement centers, and family-owned businesses.

      Yet another challenge for Network sites is the volatile nature of the job market. How are educators to know what jobs to prepare students for? An administrator for Detroit Public Schools offers the following perspective:

We are not sure what jobs will look like in the future. Because many of the jobs that we're expecting to come up have not even been created. So the best thing that we can do is to give students some skill acquisition that will help them transfer the knowledge that we've provided into the next millennium. We're concerned about problem solving, conflict resolution, teaming, and all those kinds of things that they must be able to do.

Instead of changing your program to fit the shifts in the job market, train your students to be ready for anything.

      Student needs and desires often change as well; therefore some teachers are faced with the challenge of finding other industries or more rigorous work experiences for their students. A teacher at McKinley Penn Senior High School in Washington, D.C., discovered that after she placed a talented student at a popular magazine, the young woman decided she did not want to write for a career, although she enjoyed writing for herself. So the teacher found the student another placement. "It's just as valuable for students to figure out what they don't like as much what they do like," asserts one Network member.

      In order for schools to meet the above challenges, WBL programs must be carefully planned and structured in a flexible way to offer increasing levels of mastery over time. Within a thoughtfully planned WBL structure, students discover strengths and weaknesses as they grow. Hamilton and Hamilton (1997a) offer a useful chart that covers all the dimensions of work-based learning--level of intensity, purpose, types of activities, connections to the school, and teacher/employer investment. To maximize the potential for student learning these items should be considered in planning a WBL program.

      The first part of this chapter provided definitions, purposes, and types of WBL found by researchers and practiced by Urban Schools Network sites. The next section, will show how Network sites link WBL with classroom learning as a result of the types of WBL that each has chosen to implement.

LINKING WORK-BASED LEARNING TO
CLASSROOM LEARNING

      The distinguishing factor between work-based learning and cooperative education and other "work-experience" programs is the classroom link to nonvocational subjects such as math, English, science, and social studies (Stern and Rahn, 1995). Research has shown that WBL can add value to school learning when it is "explicitly connected to academic subjects and the practical application of those subjects" (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997). Adria Steinberg's book, Real Learning, Real Work (1997b), offers three strategies for providing quality links to academic curriculum: project-based learning, work and learning projects, and field studies (see Box 3-1).

BOX 3-1: TRYING ON WORK WHILE TRYING OUT MINDS (Steinberg, 1997b, reprinted with permission from Horace, the journal of the Coalition of Essential Schools (Providence, Rhode Island), Volume 14, Number 1, page 2 (September 1997).       "The challenge in school-to-work programs," says Adria Steinberg of Jobs for the Future in her new book, Real Learning, Real Work, "is to create something that does not look like school, as teenagers now know it, or like work, as most of them experience it." The best work-based learning strategies let students try on different work identities, she concludes, while they learn the concepts, skills, and habits of mind that prepare them for college and careers. Jobs for the Future has identified three complementary strategies, she notes:       Project-Based Learning. Class or individual projects, jointly negotiated by students and teacher, in which students investigate an area of interest to them and important to the course of study. Work or community partners help provide context and information for the project and attend a culminating exhibition in which students present and exhibit their findings and results.       Work and Learning Projects. As part of a work-based learning experience students complete a project, in which they investigate an important issue connected to their work and make a contribution to the work site. Work site mentors provide coaching and expert advice from the design stage through the assessment of the project.       Field Studies. These investigations of complex, real-world problems are usually initiated by work or community partners "hiring" students as consultants to study or make recommendations on a specific decision or problem. The partner acts as the "client" to whom students present findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

      Over the years, Urban Schools Network members have developed practices for making the connection between the workplace and the classroom. Network teachers advocate using projects, linking to postsecondary education, and industry visits.

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

      Project-based learning is a tool for designing curriculum based on student interest for an authentic audience and purpose. In Washington, D.C., students in the Printing Academy at McKinley Penn High School were working on designing and producing a postage stamp for the U.S. Postal Service. Social studies, history, government, and English teachers from the Publishing Academy worked with their business partner to develop curriculum for the project. Students designed, executed, and assessed their own progress. Students at McKinley Penn were learning not only about the printing industry but also about how most industries operate.

      Students at Putnam City West High School in Oklahoma City participate in a nine-week health industry shadowing project. Students are given writing assignments each time they return to school from biweekly visits to the local hospital. Students keep journals of their assignments for the nine weeks of shadowing, and at the end they write a research paper on the career area that most interests them. The hospital and health industry provide an authentic learning environment for students to hone their research and writing skills. Although there is no outside audience for this project, students learn the importance of identifying and in some cases refining their career goals.

      Network teachers discovered the need to teach breadth--both in occupational areas (called "all aspects of the industry" in the STW legislation) and academic subjects. As an administrator from Baltimore notes "there's got to be an interdisciplinary approach" to work-based learning activities. This need for an interdisciplinary approach to WBL in the classroom lends itself to integrated curriculum projects (for more examples of integrated curriculum projects see Chapter Two).

      Another technique that lends itself to linking workplace and classroom learning is "backward mapping" (for more information on backward mapping or project-based learning, see Box 3-2 at the end of this chapter). Backward mapping is a conceptual tool for designing curriculum. Using this tool, teachers start with an essential question that must be answered in a workplace context and using academic standards. Next they develop the project framework and criteria for assessment. Finally they plan classroom and workplace activities that support the project. Using this tool, teachers can create rigorous, challenging projects that include both work and school objectives for learning.

      Teachers in the Network have found that using curriculum projects tied to students' workplace experiences can in some cases increase student achievement in academic subject areas where a student is able to practically apply academic knowledge. For example, a math teacher at Harrisburg High School in Pennsylvania, tells the story of a young man who kept "acing" the teacher's math quizzes. When asked why he was doing so well, the student said that he had been using his math in his drafting classes and at his work placement. A comment like this is music to the ears of any teacher struggling to help students see the relevance of their subject area. Furthermore, teachers at the Harrisburg and Baltimore sites encourage the students who "get it," that is, who make the ties between school and work to share their epiphanies in the classroom.

LINKING TO POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

      Another way to tie WBL to the classroom is to provide links between secondary and postsecondary education. The Network was founded on the expressed belief in providing high-quality career and educational options for all students which includes the option of going to college after high school. Over the years, Network members have tried to provide for their students an education that meets this standard. In Detroit, administrators at the district level strategically use their WBL programs as a "bridge" to community college programs "to give [ students] that extra leg up that other students may not have." Moreover, they have seen in Detroit a "mirroring/merging" of the college prep track and the career prep track, so that students are offered the "best of both."

      Some Tech Prep sites that joined the Network to create and implement formal articulation agreements between secondary and postsecondary institutions included a WBL component in those plans. For example, West Charlotte High School in North Carolina recently finalized an articulation agreement with Central Piedmont Community College so that students no longer have to wait several quarters before they can begin WBL at the college. Network members from New Orleans devised a plan that provides college credit at Delgado Community College to students from L.E. Rabouin High School who successfully complete their cooperative education program.

      Other sites have found innovative ways to connect their students with postsecondary options. McKinley Penn in Washington, D.C., had a dual enrollment program between Washington Public Schools and local colleges and universities such as George Washington University, Howard University, American University, and Trinity College. High school seniors in the Communications Academy took courses related to the communications field on the college campuses. For example, one professor from Howard University, a former employee of Disney Studios, taught students animation. In some cases students went twice a week to the colleges instead of going to the communication lab at McKinley Penn.

INDUSTRY VISITS

      Another practice by Network sites that connects WBL to classroom learning is taking the classroom to the industry. Teachers from Putnam City West High School have designed a summer camp that brings ninth and tenth graders to local hospitals to view many different operations in the health industry. At the Harrisburg site, students have accompanied teachers on job shadows of the electronics industry. Some shadowing visits have lasted as long as two weeks. An added bonus for students, their teachers say, is that students learn about potential job opportunities at these companies right out of high school, and in some cases, the company has a program that helps pay college tuition.

      Industry visits are beneficial both for students and for teachers, who learn about the industries to which they are sending their students. Teachers from the Harrisburg, Charlotte, and Detroit sites have completed teacher internships or externships (for more on teacher internships, see Chapter Six). The idea behind industry visits for teachers is that teachers later fold their knowledge of particular industries into the classroom curriculum making it more relevant for students.

      Instead of going to industry, some teachers have found ways to bring industry into the classroom. One striking example was the radio lab at McKinley Penn in Washington, D.C., that National Public Radio (NPR) paid for, installed, and provided staff to teach students and teachers how to use. Another was a financial aid workshop put on by business partners for students at McKinley Penn. Many of these students were the first in their families to graduate from high school, let alone to think about attending college. In Omaha, the school-to-work coordinator at Bryan High School organizes "lunch bunches" for students, lunchtime talks on campus by industry representatives. A critical point here is that although the talks are open to all students, the coordinator invites specific students to attend based on their career interest. Students' career interests are kept in a database at the school that is accessible to both the coordinator and classroom teachers.

      Network members have found that carefully linking workplace experiences with classroom learning can make learning "come alive" for students. An administrator from Detroit describes the awakening of one student:

He was at his work placement looking at cells through a microscope and spotted an abnormal cell. He had seen something similar in his documentation of the disease and thought he had discovered the link to the cure for AIDS [Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome].

Network teachers have found that these awakenings, or educational sparks between school and work placements, are more likely brought about with the use of project-based learning, strategic links between secondary and postsecondary education, and comprehensive industry visits.

LESSONS LEARNED

ENSURING THE QUALITY OF WORK-BASED LEARNING

      Linking school and work experiences is one thing, but ensuring quality experiences for students is quite another. Currently there is little information or research on the quality of WBL activities (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997). However, it does seem that the benchmark of quality WBL is that students learn skills and knowledge that they can apply in the classroom. In an article entitled, When is work a learning experience?, Hamilton and Hamilton (1997b) provide a list of seven elements to look for in determining whether students are learning:

1. technical competence

2. breadth

3. personal and social competence

4. expectations and feedback

5. teaching roles

6. academic achievement

7. career paths

The idea behind this list is for teachers to make sure students' WBL programs contain all seven elements (if possible) to ensure quality WBL experiences. Teachers and administrators in the Urban Schools Network primarily stressed the importance of the "expectations and feedback" component. They found that training agreements, increased supervision, and frequent assessment of students helped ensure quality work-based learning for their students.

TRAINING AGREEMENTS

      Network sites have found one way to ensure quality is to have teachers, students, parents, and employers design and put in writing an agreement that spells out the students' learning objectives for the work placement. In Oklahoma City, students take the ACT Plan and Explore assessment tests in eighth and tenth grade. The Plan is an interest and academic assessment for sophomore students that assists them in identifying a career interest and gives a pre-ACT score. The Explore is the eight-grade version of the Plan. Both help determine student career interests while teachers hold individual counseling sessions with students and their parents to help determine the best work placements. An administrator from Charlotte stresses that the employer and the student must not only agree to the learning objectives for the placement but also include objectives that are measurable. In Omaha, students, parents, teachers, and employers must sign off on training agreements before students go to workplaces.

      Other things Network sites have considered in developing WBL opportunities are safety and gender equity. In New York, career development coordinators at Westinghouse High School in Brooklyn call in the Board of Education Division of Work Experience to initiate business site monitoring for safety. The coordinators say, "We're not going to place kids in situations where they could put themselves in any jeopardy." Career development coordinators also make sure that training agreements are in place before sending students, especially female students, out to business sites. As one coordinator says, "I want to make sure that they get equal training with the male students." Ensuring gender equity is critical for female students in nontraditional workplaces. In Saint Paul, Minnesota, teachers at Humboldt Secondary Complex use a course called "Career Horizons" to encourage female students to explore nontraditional careers. The course consists of field trips, job shadowing, guest speakers, and technical college visits for young women interested in exploring and confronting the barriers to nontraditional careers. Humboldt's link with St. Paul Technical College has provided expanded opportunities for female student placements in the electrical and plumbing industries.

SUPERVISION

      Staff at Network sites have discovered that students need a lot of support from the school to make their work experience meaningful. One administrator from Lansdowne High School in Baltimore emphasizes that, "any kid in a work-based program has to be in everyday contact with the teacher, coordinator, or a school-based person." One strategy Bryan High School uses to support students is making routine visits to the worksites to check up on students and solicit feedback from the students and employers alike. Another area of supervision is follow-up to ensure that students show up to the worksite consistently and on time until they develop habits for doing so.

      Although checking up on students takes a lot of time, Network teachers feel it is the responsibility of the school to do so in order to maintain partnerships with business. Businesses have little patience with students who have discipline problems or fail to report to work. Teachers from Omaha and Washington, D.C., make clear to employers that if they have any problems with a student to call the school and the school will take care of it. One Network teacher tells employers, "you don't have to put up with it [discipline problems], and that if you want to release the child now, we'll expect him back here, because we don't want problems and we want you to remain a partner with us." This teacher emphasizes that "we never ask for a second chance" from employers when a student doesn't work out. Network members have found that keeping good relationships with employers and taking responsibility for student behavior at the worksite paves the way for the next round of students going on work placements.

      Another way Network sites have found to support their students' work-based learning is to offer training for students' worksite supervisors in the principles of mentoring. In Charlotte, North Carolina, the public school system, Central Piedmont Community College, and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte provided a mentoring workshop for direct supervisors of their students in work-based learning programs. In New Orleans, similar training called "meister training" is in place for workplace supervisors.

ASSESSMENT

      Once a WBL placement is designed for a student and the student is well adjusted, Network teachers frequently assess the student to ensure a high-quality experience. As one Detroit administrator puts its, "we don't want students to become stagnant. We want them to grow and develop. So they can work as fast as they wish, or they can work as slow as they please, but before they finish they must complete all of the essential skills." The skills students must learn in Detroit are based on both industry and academic standards. Students are given a portable chart that lists academic and technical skills that they are to accomplish. At the end of each semester, teachers and work-site supervisors test student performance in each of the assigned areas and log the scores on the chart.

      At the Communications Academy at McKinley Penn in Washington, D.C., students were assessed based on an evaluation tool that covered media industry standards, academic knowledge, attendance, and attitude and performance on the job site. In Omaha, students at Bryan High School are evaluated both by their teachers and employers based on similar standards. One teacher at Bryan has developed a simple, comprehensive two-page form for employers to use to assess job skill performance. At Bryan, each student's career assessments are kept on file with the student's advisory counselor. This way advisors have the most accurate, up-to-date information to guide students in developing their skills.

      In summary, it is important to make sure that students are learning from their worksite experiences by measuring whether students are applying their academic knowledge of such subjects as math, science, English, and history to their learning experiences at work. Different students learn different things based on the type of WBL they do. Educators must focus on the quality of the work-based learning experience; otherwise there is little evidence that students learn more from school-sponsored WBL than from their after-school jobs at local fast food restaurants (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997).

CONCLUSION: WBL
IS WORTH THE TROUBLE

      Work-based learning looks different at different sites due to a variety of definitions and purposes for creating WBL programs. As a result, it is difficult to measure what students learn in WBL programs. In fact, current arguments for WBL are "more logical than empirical as there is little consensus on how to define program quality apart from the various purposes that WBL hopes to promote" (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997, p.6). If there is little empirical evidence that WBL is worth the time and energy to do it, why have educators like those in the Urban Schools Network persisted? A principal from Lansdowne High School in Baltimore County, Maryland explains it this way:

When you go to school-to-work programs you're going to eat up a lot of staff, time, and money to provide this program. The end result is, you get a child who does not do well in school, maybe is going to drop out, and you get him into an employment situation and you learn how to motivate a kid [to stay in school]. They really sharpen their skills, and they go on to college.

      Many Network teachers have seen changes in students' personal and social confidence. For example, one Network member commented, "we saw a depth of difference in their attitudes on their job compared to how they behaved in school." This teacher goes on to talk about a "marginal" kid that teachers hesitated to send out to the workplace. It turned out that the student "performed like a young adult" and the employers "loved him." Another student who was considered "special ed." was the lead designer of an electric car produced by students at Breighaupt Career and Technical Center in Detroit. The students designed the car in 35-40 days in conjunction with a fabrication company and a major U.S. automaker. A teacher/administrator at Breighaupt points out, "we have such a high rate of success with our students who are supposed to be `at risk' like the young man with that particular vehicle."

      "Everything changes. And when students come back after being out, their chests stick out," as one Network member points out. Students in Las Cruces seem to take their education more seriously. One student said, "I know I give up a lot of extra curricular activities at school, but it's worth it to me...for my future." Students in the Academy of Finance, the Academy of Law Related Education, and ÒKids have a real need to connect, and theyÕre going to connect whether we provide that connection for them or not.Ó
the School of Business and Commerce at Lake Clifton Eastern High School in Baltimore, Maryland are dressing better, coming to school wearing ties and jackets or blouses and skirts. As one administrator puts it, "they are dressing for success in the workplace and bringing it into the school."

      Network members also discovered an increase in attendance and scholarship among students who wanted the "privilege," as some Network teachers called it, of doing work-based learning. At Lake Clifton Eastern High School in Baltimore, students who have been in WBL programs do better on tests. The Las Cruces site can show better attendance in school by students in WBL programs. An administrator from the Detroit public schools notes increasing numbers of career and technical students getting 3.0 grade point averages and attending scholarship awards banquets. A teacher in the Health Career Cluster at Putnam City West High School in Oklahoma City compared grades of students who were in the Health Cluster and doing WBL with those students who were not. This teacher found that student grades remained fairly constant, but students in the cluster chose more of the advanced math and science courses. It was also found that the dropout rate decreased among these students.

      There is some anecdotal, but nevertheless encouraging, evidence that WBL affects students positively and is worth the time and energy expended. As shown above, Network sites and research suggest that WBL can in fact advance learning in academic subjects if explicitly linked to those subjects and can engage students who were otherwise uninterested in school (Stasz and Kaganoff, 1997). An administrator from Las Cruces offers one reason why work-based learning may be affecting students in these ways:

Kids have a real need to connect, and they're going to connect whether we provide the connection for them or not. Some kids connect to cheer leading, or to academics, but for many kids we don't have a connection for them. Work-based learning programs take them out of the big mega school and put them in one-on-one relationships with adults who care. I think that connects them. We've seen in our WBL programs that our kids are doing better in school. They're happier.

      Urban Schools Network staff and site members have learned a great deal about work-based learning over the past years. One key finding was that WBL activities were being initiated by academic as well as vocational teachers at most Network sites. In fact, many sites made great efforts to tie their programs to postsecondary education. As a result of these WBL experiences, some students were encouraged to pursue postsecondary education after learning about the educational requirements of certain jobs. The icing on the cake for some students, like the ones in Harrisburg, was the discovery that if they were hired by their WBL employers, the company might even pay their college tuition. We also learned from teachers in the Network that ensuring high-quality WBL experiences takes time, energy, and resources often lacking in urban schools with tight budgets and high staff turnover. Therefore, in a July 1997 focus group interview, we asked Network members to share tips that they have learned for other practitioners starting WBL. In closing we provide their advice, along with a contact list for more resources on work-based learning (see resource list at end of chapter).

Things to consider in designing WBL programs:

• Try not to separate academic from career and technical outcomes.

• Train students better at school before sending them on the work site.

• Offer a variety of experiences for students.

• Build in flexibility.

• Start earlier, perhaps in middle school.

• If possible, hire a WBL coordinator to handle work placements.

Advice for finding work placements for students:

• Try your local chamber of commerce, private industry council, or business advisory board.

• Try small, local family-owned businesses.

• Don't ask potential business partners for money, instead ask for resources; such as employee time and transportation for students.

• Invite business partners or industry representatives to the school.

REFERENCES

Hamilton, M.A. & Hamilton, S.F. (1997a). Learning well at work: Choices for quality. Washington, D.C.: National School-to-Work Office.

Hamilton, M.A. & Hamilton, S.F. (1997b). When is work a learning experience? Phi Delta Kappan 78 (9), 682-689.

Stasz, C., & Kaganoff, T. (1997). Learning how to learn at work: Lessons from three high school programs. Unreviewed draft DRU-1697-NCRVE/UCB. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Steinberg, A. (1997a). Making schoolwork more like real work: Exemplary school-to-work programs show promise for more purposeful and engaged learning. The Harvard Education Letter 13 (2), 1-6.

Steinberg, A. (1997b). Real learning, real work: School-to-work as high school reform. New York: Routledge.

Stern, D. & Rahn, M. (1995, May). Preparing students for the world of work: How health career academies provide work-based learning. Educational Leadership, pp. 37-40.

Stern, D. (1984). School-based enterprise and the quality of work experience: A study of high school students. Youth & Society 15 (4), 401-427.

Stern, D., Stone, J. III, Hopkins, C., McMillion, M., & Crain, R. (1994). School-based enterprise: Productive learning in American high schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1995). Learning to work: Making the transition from school to work. OTA-EHR-637. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Urquiola, M., Stern, D., Horn, I., Dornsife, C., Chi, B., Williams, L., Merritt, D., Hughes, K., & Bailey, T. (1997). School to work, college and career. MDS-1144. Berkeley, CA: NCRVE.

USEFUL RESOURCES ON WORK-BASED LEARNING

(Reprinted with permission from Horace, the journal of the Coalition of Essential Schools (Providence, Rhode Island), Volume 14, Number 1, page 8 (September 1997).

American Youth Policy Forum has publications for educators interested in youth development and school-to-work issues. 1001 Connecticut Ave. NW, Suite 719, Washington, DC 20036; (202) 775-9731.

Changing the Subject: The New Urban High School is a demonstration project of the Big Picture company and the U.S. Department of Education. 118 Magazine St., Cambridge, MA 02139; (617) 492-3133; web: www.bpic.org.

Jobs for the Future works nationally with schools, districts, and communities to design, create, and assess school-to-career learning. 1 Bowdoin Sq., Boston, MA 02114; (617) 742-5995.

Manpower Demonstration Research Corporations designs and tests education and employment-related programs for disadvantaged youth. 3 Park Ave., New York, NY 10016; (212) 532-3200.

National Academy Foundation in New York networks over 170 career academy programs nationwide. 235 Park Ave. S., 7th floor, New York, NY 10003; (212) 420-8400.

National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 2030 Addison St., Suite 500, Berkeley, CA 94704; (800) (old phone deleted); web: http://vocserve.berkeley.edu.

New Ways Workers acts as a national broker for school districts, community organizations, businesses, and other groups to provide work-based educational experiences for students. 785 Market St., #950, San Francisco, CA 94103; (415) 995-9860.

Project-Based Learning Network connects educators interested in project-based learning, school-to-career initiatives, and education reform. Autodesk Foundation, 111 McInnis Parkway, San Rafael, CA 94903; (415) 507-5664.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory has fine materials from its Education and Work program, Integrated Workplace Learning Project, and more. 101 S.W. Main, Suite 500, Portland, OR 97204; (503) 275-9500 or (800) 547-6339; e-mail: info@nwrel.org; web: www.nwrel.org/.

Wise Individualized Senior Experience (WISE) Services helps schools organize project-based learning as transition to life beyond high school. Contact Vic Leviatin, 29 Old Tarrytown Rd., White Plains, NY 10603; (914) 428-1968.

Working to Learn, a project of TERC Communication, develops curriculum materials and runs workshops to strengthen the quality of work-based learning. 2067 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02140; (617) 547-0430.