• SELECTED SCHEDULES AT URBAN SCHOOLS NETWORK SITES
• THE SCHEDULE CHANGE PROCESS AT BRYAN AND OTHER SITES
• MODIFYING INSTRUCTION TO MATCH THE SCHEDULE
• LESSONS LEARNED: PROMISING OUTCOMES AND CONTINUING CHALLENGES
• CONCLUSION

      How can high schools make time in the day for students to participate in the integrated academic and vocational curriculum and work-based learning experiences described in the previous two chapters? School-to-work initiatives require changes in instructional practice and out-of-classroom experiences that do not always fit neatly within the confines of a traditional seven- or eight-period school day. Even in the most traditional academic programs, the school schedule can limit opportunities for in-depth study, interdisciplinary work, and projects that require the application of new knowledge. In the 1990s, a demand for rigorous instruction and more productive use of learning time has prompted many American high schools to adopt alternative schedules, in particular schedules with longer class periods, or blocks, and fewer classes per day. By some estimates (Canady and Rettig, 1996), over half of American high schools are already operating on or planning a move to "block scheduling," schedules with fewer but longer class periods each day.

      Schools in the National Center on Research in Vocational Education's (NCRVE's) Urban Schools Network have approached block scheduling with different goals in mind. One goal is to reduce the fragmentation of a school day in which students prepare for and attend up to eight disconnected classes daily. In a schedule comprised of longer class blocks--more like a typical college schedule--students focus on only a few courses per semester, and complete what was formerly a year-long course in one semester. In a seven- or eight-period day, classes may be only forty to fifty minutes long. In each class meeting, several minutes are used for taking attendance, collecting home work, and other housekeeping matters. This leaves only some thirty minutes for instruction and learning activities, with little chance for student questions, collaborative work, or applied projects before the bell rings and students rush off to the next class. A block schedule, one with fewer classes per day and longer class blocks, reduces the number of transitions per school day, and the amount of time spent simply moving from class to class.

      Other schools have moved toward block scheduling with the aim of accelerating student progress and reducing dropouts by providing more frequent opportunities for students to make up failed classes. The block schedule offers an accelerated pace for students, who may complete an additional course each year. The accelerated schedule allows career-focused students to enroll in concurrent community college classes during their senior year or to devote an entire semester to a work placement.

      For less successful students, failing a class under a traditional schedule could result in falling an entire year behind. One Urban Schools Network principal remarked that, under a traditional schedule, "if a student was failing a course at Thanksgiving, it was probably over for the year." With a block schedule, a student who fails a required course in the fall may be able to retake it in the spring rather than waiting for summer school or the next year. At Mergenthaler Vocational-Technical High School in Baltimore, Maryland, the required academic and vocational curriculum left no room for electives, so students who failed courses had to repeat them in the summer. As one teacher explained: "We have a feeling that a certain percentage of our dropouts are because when students fail a course, they have to take it in the summer, so they give up." Faculty at Mergenthaler voted ninety-eight to two for a block schedule, with hopes of lowering the dropout rate.

      A third goal associated with the move to block scheduling is fostering a more academic atmosphere and quieting down the school building by reducing commotion in the hallways. According to Robert Lynn Canady and Michael D. Rettig, leading authors on block scheduling, the majority of high school discipline referrals are made during the passing time between classes, when students have only five minutes to go to the bathroom, go to their lockers, and, they add, "get a date" (1996, p. 3). A block schedule with a four-period day requires only three or four passing periods. Bryan High School in Omaha, Nebraska, implemented a new ten-minute passing period to accompany longer course periods, noting that a longer passing time is a form of conflict management. The result, a staff member says, is that socializing takes place outside of class, and "kids have enough time to walk from one end of the building to the other, with less pressure from being pushed and shoved." A teacher from the same Omaha school describes her preference for the new ninety minute period: "Before, in the forty-five minute period, you felt like the bell was constantly ringing. You felt like you just got started on something, and there it is ringing again, and you have to start all over. Now, you feel like the kids are more relaxed and ready to go. The kids got used to it right away." Another teacher adds: "The whole building has a more academic atmosphere, because the kids are ready to learn."

      Another key goal associated with block scheduling is making time in the day to implement innovative instructional methods and out-of-classroom experiences that are part of successful school-to-work initiatives. Interestingly, teachers of academic science courses have long wished for extended course periods to accommodate laboratory exercises, yet many traditional vocational subjects have been taught in longer course periods for years. A ninety-minute block provides enough time for personalized attention from the teacher, guest speakers from industry, integrated instruction, or extensive lab work and projects. In the upper grades, longer blocks may also make it easier for students to participate in field trips, job shadowing, and work-based learning placements. Offering two related academic and vocational classes, such as geometry and drafting or biology and health careers, in back-to-back blocks, creates opportunities for integrated curriculum units, student group work, and hands-on projects. Moreover, having a large proportion of teachers with a common ninety-minute planning period facilitates team teaching and other collaborative work among faculty. In some Tech Prep efforts, the block schedule also makes it possible for students to enroll in concurrent programs at the community college.

      Certainly changing the school schedule is neither a panacea nor a requirement for school-to-work, or for other school change efforts. As with any change, the benefits associated with alternative schedules are accompanied by a new set of challenges and tradeoffs. Several schools in NCRVE's Urban Schools Network have recently moved from a seven-period day to a three- or four-period day in conjunction with their school-to-work efforts. This chapter examines the transition to block scheduling at Urban Schools Network sites, and summarizes teachers' and administrators' reflections from 1997 focus group interviews on the promising outcomes and continuing challenges of this change at their schools.

SELECTED SCHEDULES AT
URBAN SCHOOLS NETWORK SITES

4 x 4 Block

      A variety of schedules are in operation among the schools in the Urban Schools Network[1], including, of course, the seven- or eight-period day, also known as the single-period daily schedule (Canady and Rettig, 1995), which has been the most common high school schedule used for most of the century. An alternative schedule that has been implemented in several Network sites is the four-period day, also known as the four by four (4 x 4) block schedule, or the 4/4 semester plan. In a 4 x 4 block schedule, students typically take 4 ninety-minute classes a day, which they complete in one semester, for a total of up to eight classes per school year. Teachers generally teach three classes, with one long planning period daily. Some sites have modified the 4 x 4 schedule, for example, by offering a few classes, such as foreign language, advanced placement, or music courses, for half a block for the entire school year. Several Network sites are researching or actively planning for a 4 x 4 block schedule. The 4 x 4 plan is already in operation at:

• Bryan High School in Omaha, Nebraska,

• Lake Clifton-Eastern High School in Baltimore City, Maryland,

• Lansdowne High School in Baltimore County, Maryland,

• Maplewood High School in Nashville, Tennessee,

• Mayfield High School in Las Cruces, New Mexico, and

• the CREATE Consortium in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, including Putnam City Schools and Millwood and Western Heights Public School Districts.

THE 4 X 4 BLOCK SCHEDULE UP
CLOSE AT BRYAN HIGH SCHOOL

      Since fall 1994, Bryan Senior High School in Omaha, Nebraska, has operated on a four-period day schedule. Students take three or four ninety-minute classes per semester, no more than eight classes per year. Each semester, now called a term, is made up of two nine-week grading periods. Former semester-long classes are completed in nine weeks, and former year-long classes are now completed in one term (semester). Study halls at Bryan have been eliminated altogether, although students do have the opportunity for "guided study" within a block. Passing time has been extended to ten minutes, to allow students sufficient time between classes to visit their lockers and the restroom, and to talk to teachers and peers.

      Teachers teach three classes per term, instead of the six they taught before the block schedule, and have a ninety-minute planning period daily. Teachers are generally responsible for seventy to ninety students, compared to their previous load of 140 to 180 students. In addition, students have a thirteen-minute advisement meeting with a faculty advisor at the beginning of each school day, creating a relationship with a teacher and a small group of other students that continues for all four years at Bryan. The daily schedule at Bryan is outlined in Table 4-1.

      A sample ninth grader's schedule might look like Table 4-2.

DUAL SCHEDULE

      Other sites have adapted the block schedule in varying configurations. Phelps Career High School in Washington, D.C., operates on a dual schedule-- a block schedule for teachers and students in a career academy within the school, and a traditional eight-period day for the rest of the school. This schedule is possible because some academy teachers are assigned to teach academy courses only. Nevertheless, the whole staff is seriously considering a move to schoolwide block scheduling, and according to an administrator from the site, academic teachers who have observed the longer academy classes, are "coming around" with support for the block schedule.

      Jane Addams Business Careers Center in Cleveland, Ohio, tested a block schedule for ninth graders during the 1996-97 school year. Vocational teachers, already experienced with teaching long classes, adapted comfortably to the new schedule. However, staff members report that overall, the schedule experiment was not successful as a result of insufficient staff development for those teachers who were not prepared for the creative instructional modifications required by the longer period.

MODIFIED BLOCK

      In New Orleans, Louisiana, L.E. Rabouin Career Magnet High School operates on a modified schedule, with a regular seven-period day Monday, Tuesday, and Friday, and long blocks on Wednesday and Thursday. An administrator indicated that before the school makes a move to a 4 x 4 block schedule, they must first focus on integrating curriculum, building a stronger relationship with the community college, and providing professional development to prepare some teachers for instruction in a long block.

      A schedule that combines block and traditional scheduling provides a way for teachers and students to test the waters and gradually adapt to a longer course block. Some Network sites, however, advised against a split schedule, or a gradual transition to block scheduling, suggesting that keeping track of multiple schedules caused more chaos and confusion than starting fresh one semester with a brand new, but consistent, block schedule.

TRIMESTER PLAN

      Another scheduling option, less commonly found in high schools, is the trimester schedule which is currently operating at North Division High School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. North Division staff describe their trimester plan as a 3 x 3 block schedule. In the past, teachers had five course responsibilities daily and students attended seven courses. With the 3 x 3 schedule, students attend 3 two-hour classes, and teachers teach 2 two-hour classes and take advantage of a two-hour prep period each day. At North Division, no accommodations were made to run certain courses, such as language or music, for the entire year, but the school works in other ways to support teachers who are concerned about the impact of the trimester on their subject areas. For example, marching band is strategically offered in the fall semester, and all teachers can take advantage of a daily built-in activity period to work with students year round. One feature of the trimester plan that appeals to schools who are concerned about dropout and failure rates is that the trimester allows students who fail a course up to two additional chances to retake it during the school year.

ALTERNATE DAY SCHEDULE

      Another schedule variation involving fewer but longer periods each day is the alternate day schedule, also called the A/B block schedule, or Day 1/Day 2 block schedule (Canady and Rettig, 1995). In this schedule, courses are offered in longer instructional blocks, with half the courses offered on A days, and the rest offered on B days over the entire school year. In some schools, students have three long blocks each day, plus one shorter period that runs on both A and B days, for a total of seven courses per year. With the alternate day block schedule, as with the 4 x 4 plan, teachers and students benefit from extended learning time during each period and fewer course changes daily. Offering courses all year long on alternate days, rather than every day for one semester, may appeal to faculty from subject areas that require strict sequential instruction of concepts or ongoing reinforcement and practice of skills.

      A drawback of the alternate day schedule is that, as in a traditional schedule, students often manage six to eight courses all year long. In addition, teachers may still be responsible for up to 180 students at a time, rather than the smaller student load they would have in a 4 x 4 block schedule. These key tradeoffs may have led more Urban Schools Network sites to choose the 4 x 4 block schedule. The 4 x 4 block allows both teachers and students to concentrate on fewer courses at a time, and teachers can form closer working relationships with a smaller number of students whom they see for longer periods of time. This chapter, based on the experiences of Urban Schools Network sites, focuses most closely on the 4 x 4 plan. The block scheduling literature provides a wealth of information on the unique features of numerous other schedule models to meet the needs of diverse school settings.

THE SCHEDULE CHANGE PROCESS
AT BRYAN AND OTHER SITES

      For many Network sites, the move to an alternative schedule was preceded by a lengthy decision-making and planning process. The transition to block scheduling at Bryan Senior High School, in Omaha, Nebraska, is one example of a collaborative and comprehensive schedule change process. The staff at Bryan first began exploring nontraditional schedules and their potential for integrating academic and vocational education in 1991, as part of an overall school restructuring effort. Before making any decisions, Bryan staff did extensive research and planning. A key feature of the planning process was the opportunity for several "late start days" when teachers could participate in committee meetings until 11:00 a.m. without students present. One teacher asserted: "When a change is this important, the process needs to take a while. And the change came from the teachers, not from someone else telling us that is what we were going to do." A staff member explained the process: "We looked at a number of different schedules. By bringing in people from other schools, through paper research, and from a video teleconference we did with another school, we gradually began to see that what we wanted was this 4 x 4 block." According to nearly every staff member interviewed, the planning and implementation process at Bryan was very successful. As one teacher remarked, "It's been very successful at Bryan, and I think one of the reasons is it was teacher planned and teacher implemented. Those of us on the bottom of the hierarchy worked long and hard designing and implementing." Another key to the success of the planning process was the availability of time and money: "You can't have this level of change without the money and the time--money for computers, speakers, people coming in."

      The teacher-driven nature of the schedule planning process at Bryan was evident at other Urban Schools Network sites as well. At Lansdowne High School in Baltimore County, an administrator explained that at her site:

Block scheduling was initially mentioned administratively, but it was the teachers who determined who was going to be a part of the committee that would organize the investigation into it. It was the teachers who visited other sites, it was the teachers who invited people in to answer questions and the teachers who involved their union to see if their rights would be involved. When they finally voted, about eighty percent of faculty were in agreement with the change, and they were fully aware of instructional changes that would be needed.

      Additionally, both Bryan and Lansdowne had administrative support. Lansdowne's principal said:

We wanted teachers to be sure they recognized they were gaining, not losing, with this change. So we removed all duties. No one had cafeteria duty, we hired community people to work in the cafeteria. So teachers ended up with a ninety-minute planning period and a duty-free lunch period, which allowed them additional time for planning individually or in team combinations.

      Teachers from Maplewood High School in Nashville, which went to a four-period day three years ago, were also central players in the change process:

When deciding to go to block, we sent teachers out to different schools to see and evaluate different scheduling options. The most vocal and resistant teachers were sent out to look at other sites. Teachers visited several sites outside of Tennessee, to look at schools similar to ours in terms of demographics, so that teachers could see how the 4 x 4 would look in their subject. We studied for a whole year before we even took a vote.

      A staff member from Bryan High School in Omaha summarized their planning process: "We as a group of ninety faculty looked and talked and fought and argued for about a year and a half, and then ultimately decided the faculty would take a vote." The vote was seventy-eight percent in favor of a move to the block. Teachers who voted against the change were offered a transfer within the district, but virtually all staff chose to stay at Bryan.

      Once the faculty had decided on the block schedule, they next took the plan to students, parents, and the school board, in what they described as "a fairly democratic and inclusive process," in which "people had their questions answered along the way." Bryan staff emphasized broad participation in the change process. "Getting parents involved is critical. It's their school and community, their ideas need to be included at the beginning, not as an afterthought. You need to communicate formally, and informally, at PTA, sports events, and so on." Staff recounted how parents evolved from suspicion to support for the change:

The teachers who introduced block scheduling at the first round of parent meetings were targets for verbal attacks. But by the second parent meeting, when new parents were challenging whether block scheduling would work, the parents from the first meeting were responding to the questions for the teachers.

Students were also kept informed by teachers or administrators who went to all current students' classes, as well as to the middle school, to answer students' questions before the schedule was put in place. By the time the issue reached the school board, the Omaha Public Schools Board of Education voted unanimously to support the change.

      Attention to the change process after implementation is crucial as well. Bryan attempted to support teachers in the implementation phase by holding "block parties" the first year. The block party, which took place during a planning period, was an opportunity for the principal to sit down with the quarter of the staff who were on their planning period at that time. A staff member explained: "He would take a half hour of that ninety-minute planning period, and just sit and listen and let staff vent. Hopefully there's something that the principal could do, some small things, to address their concerns." The block party was also an important opportunity for staff to debrief and talk to each other: "The isolation the first year can be there, because your notion of how to plan is different. The teachers did the two weeks of lesson plans, but for some it wasn't enough. The tempo and pacing are a lot different." Network teachers emphasized an ongoing need for followup and feedback to school administration beyond the first year of implementation.

      Another essential element of the change process at Bryan was a built-in evaluation plan, which took into account grade point averages, failure, dropout and graduation rates, attendance, credits, test scores, survey results, and more. Evaluation results reported in the "Bryan High School Block Schedule Update" from the Omaha Public Schools Department of Instruction and Special Education (7/22/96) included the following outcomes of the block schedule at Bryan:

• More students are on the honor roll.

• Fewer students fail classes.

• Teachers teach more creatively and in depth.

• There are fewer discipline referrals.

• Teachers and students know each other better, leading to an improved classroom atmosphere.

• Students earn significantly more credits than in the past.

• Attendance rates have been maintained.

• Grade point averages have increased.

• Teaching styles and strategies have changed.

• Students complete more elective and upper-level classes.

      According to Bryan faculty, the implementation of block scheduling was not without its ups and downs. Despite some frustrating challenges that came along with the new schedule, faculty, when asked if they would prefer to return to a traditional schedule, responded with a resounding "no, never." As one teacher put it, "I think back to doing things in forty-five minutes, now I sometimes wish I had two hours." A discussion of the positive and challenging outcomes of the new schedule follows in a later section, but first we consider the changes in instruction required to accompany a change in the schedule.

MODIFYING INSTRUCTION
TO MATCH THE SCHEDULE

      As mentioned, one goal of block scheduling is making time for innovative instructional methods, such as integrated instruction, application activities, extensive lab work, and hands-on projects. Not only is making time for innovative instruction a leading rationale behind schools' decision to move to block scheduling, but also the change to block scheduling will not succeed without a change in instruction. When asked during a teleconference how a teacher can deal with a group of adolescents for ninety minutes, Robert Lynn Canady (1995) responded, "The same way first grade teachers can deal with a classroom of six year olds for a whole day -- with a variety of instructional materials and activities." Urban Schools Network teachers assert that "you need to switch activities at least three times in a class, you can't lecture for ninety minutes," and that "you cover material in a different way because you're forced to."

      Along with other Network members, a tech prep coordinator for the New York site noted that a concern about students' attention spans was a sticky point in decision making about the block schedule. A Harvard Education Letter article addresses this concern from the perspective of Joseph M. Carroll, author of the Copernican Plan: Restructuring the American High School:

While some might argue that the fast pace of an eight- or nine-period day with a change every forty-five minutes is necessary for teenagers with short attention spans, Carroll counters that the traditional schedule actually makes students less focused. Longer periods, on the other hand, have a `dejuvenilizing' effect on young people, he says. They give students more time to take on adult responsibilities in classes (rather than being passive receivers of information) and provide more opportunities for meaningful interaction with teachers (Sadowski, 1996, p. 4).

      Of course, changing instructional style and classroom activities is no simple feat. Sadowski described how block scheduling affected instruction in one school: "Some teachers were using the lengthened class time to try a variety of hands-on teaching techniques like cooperative learning, peer editing, and group projects; others were still lecturing in the same way they had before, only for twice as long" (1996, p. 1). In Urban Schools Network sites, a similar trend has been noted. Teachers from a variety of disciplines described adaptations and new activities they used in their courses (see Table 4-3: Instructional Adaptations Across Subject Areas). A teacher at Bryan High School said that the new schedule "released the creative juices...I tried a lot of things that first time around. They didn't all work, I may not use them again, but at least it gave me a chance to try. I was in a rut." An administrator at Lansdowne High School described the new schedule as a "more exciting way to teach" that was "rejuvenating to the staff, who were able to give more real-life experiences to students."

      However, administrators at some other Network sites have been less than enthusiastic about adaptations to instruction. One said, "I've observed teachers, and I could fall asleep as I'm observing them." Another administrator reported that the teachers who complain most about the new schedule are those who want to lecture for the whole period. One teacher advises, "I will fall over asleep trying to evaluate you, if you're talking for ninety minutes, you sure can't do that for kids. If you're teaching Romeo and Juliet, maybe for thirty minutes, you can let them act out the scenes. They'll remember it more." She added that the school is made up of two groups of teachers: "those who are creative, and those who do the same old thing--stand up and talk, and the kids aren't going for it. When you look at the discipline referrals on your desk, you know who is creative, and who just tries to talk for ninety minutes."

      Network sites have used professional development to help teachers prepare for the transition to a ninety-minute period, and to promote ongoing instructional improvement. As one network administrator said, you "need to make sure a comfort level exists among teachers about the types of instruction required for block scheduling." To meet the demands of the ninety-minute period, the principal from L.E. Rabouin High School in New Orleans suggests instructional methods such as "jigsaw helping trios, getting kids to problem solve, more production work...[and] taking kids through the process of learning." These can be challenging for content-centered secondary teachers to do, so one approach she suggests is brainstorming instructional strategies by department, to help teachers "think of their content in terms of process."

      At Lake Clifton-Eastern High School in Baltimore, Maryland, the staff requested half days every Wednesday for staff development in preparation for the block schedule: "We had curriculum specialists work with teams of people to teach them additional strategies such as cooperative learning and multiple intelligences. Interdisciplinary teams developed integrated curriculum, and put it into action."

      Lansdowne High School, in Baltimore County, Maryland, offered a paid curriculum workshop several times over the summer, allowing teachers to choose when to attend. The product of the week-long workshop, with nearly one-hundred percent staff participation, was at least two weeks of plans for the start of the school year so teachers would not have to go in cold to a ninety-minute block. Professional development continued throughout the school year. Lansdowne's principal asserts that the school's job is to "deliver quality instruction. For one year every committee, staff development, and so on, was disbanded so that people could focus on instruction. Instead of inundating staff with theory, we gave them time to work together and plan." Staff were grouped into interdisciplinary teams charged with developing an integrated lesson and presenting it to faculty. Moreover, the evaluation of teaching was based on a four-period day model of instruction, and those staff who "couldn't cut it" were transferred to another school.

      At Bryan High School, along with written materials, a teleconference on block scheduling, and late start days for planning, teachers from other block-scheduled high schools were brought in to consult with Bryan staff. Bryan teachers met individually or in small groups with the teachers experienced in teaching in a long block, and were able to brainstorm ideas about classroom activities and curriculum changes and ask questions about anything they had on their minds. Bryan staff rated the use of the teacher-consultants as the most valuable preparation for the block schedule.

      The following results of a faculty and student survey administered during the first semester of block scheduling at Bryan High School strongly suggests that preparation efforts paid off in terms of a noticeable change in instruction in Bryan classrooms. The survey results are very positive overall, yet it is interesting to note the different perceptions among students and teachers to the two following survey items:

Question 1: "Are teachers using different teaching methods?

STUDENT RESPONSES:
strongly agree 15.2%	agree 54.5%	disagree 22.9%	strongly disagree 7.3%
TEACHER RESPONSES:
strongly agree 39.4%	agree 54.9%	disagree 4.2%	strongly disagree 1.5%

Question 2: "Do teachers use various activities during class?"

      Table 4-3 summarizes the types of instructional adaptations teachers made across different subject areas in terms of preparation, pacing, and activities offered to meet the needs of a longer period.

TABLE 4-3: INSTRUCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS ACROSS SUBJECT AREAS SUBJECT AREA INSTRUCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS MATH "I use computers a lot more. I can teach something, then apply it immediately, by having the students go to the lab for twenty minutes. The staff started calling the Mac lab the `Math Lab,' because the math teachers always sign up for it." "We do lots of hands-on activities that we didn't used to have time for. In a unit on volume and surface areas of three-dimensional shapes, students create figures out of paper stock, or prisms from straws, and they pass them around and figure out the volume, rather than just us giving them formulas that they plug in...they actually get their hands on things. Before, in forty-five minutes, by the time you get the materials out and explain what you want them to do, it's time to put them away." "I also teach pre-calc trig. They have more time to work in groups and problem solve. Instead of just looking at the formulas, going over examples, and then sending them home to do them, we now do some group projects. For example, a grocer has three different sizes of cereal boxes of the same brand, and they're all different heights, but he doesn't like wasting space. They have to figure out and calculate how to make them the same height but with different volumes." "Text books are often designed in sections with a forty-five-minute period in mind. With the new schedule I move along and cover two topics in a ninety-minute session, a strategy called `two-a-days.' Students are warned at the beginning of class that they will have a `two-a-day,' which means I will teach a lesson that introduces something new, give a homework assignment with 20 to 30 minutes in class to apply the new concept, and then start fresh within the same block on a new topic." FOREIGN LANGUAGE "I can't teach irregular verbs, then say, `O.K. now let's talk about the passive voice' [during the same block]. They're two completely different concepts. With the additional time, however, I can do a lot more with oral proficiency. They can work in class to do skits and presentations. But with grammar, I'm moving through the chapters a little slower, because I'm not comfortable teaching two different concepts in one day." SOCIAL STUDIES "We go to the library, work on the Internet, work on computers. You can vary things two to four times in the block with different types of activities to get to the same kind of goal." SCIENCE "Science lends itself to this because of all the labs. We can set something up, talk about it, work on it, do conclusions, work on graphs, interpret it, in that ninety-minute period." "The science teachers have developed activities for our physical science, biology, chemistry, physics classes. Whenever I go in to observe one of my science teachers, they're always involved in some activity. It cuts down on the discipline. I don't get a lot of referrals from the science teachers, because the kids have no time to go in there and act up. From the time they enter the room, there's something in there for them to do." MATH, SCIENCE, ENGLISH & ART [An interdisciplinary murder mystery project with a forensic lab focus] "Some kids from the art class who went in and did some chemistry came back saying `I wish I had taken chemistry, I didn'tknow it was like this. I didn't know medical biology would be that much fun.' It allowed kids to do some exploring, it was interdisciplinary. And it allowed teachers to do some sharing. Before we were in our own little shells." HOSPITALITY & MATH "We did a project around travel within the state of Tennessee. Students had to figure out how much money they would need for things like lodging, food, and gas." "We combined math and cooking, with all the measuring. Kids have fun when they see teachers working together." BUSINESS/ COMPUTERS "You can cover the whole scope of any topic you're working on, say computer piracy and ethics. You can introduce the concept. You can talk about it. You can role play. You can do the whole thing, and then you can evaluate, all in one period. Before our periods were forty-five minutes, five to seven minutes to settle kids down, then turn computers on, then thirty minutes to work and shut down." ENGLISH "The block is a challenge for literature, which has a rhythm--books and short stories have a rhythm. When you've been teaching for years, you know, for example, that Twelve Angry Men is a two-week unit, and you know how much time in forty minutes you have to read, to do the quiz. But, you have more time, so you're able to do more exciting things. Like, `Let's talk about trials in America right now. Let's do some small group work on how the judicial system works.' I bring in an article from the paper. That's wonderful because the play gets taught better than it did in the old days. But not as much literature gets taught, because you can't expect a young person to go home to read twelve chapters in one night." "There's time to show a video...for a slow reader, the reinforcement helps." CLOTHING CONSTRUCTION "It used to take us a month and a half to complete a project, now it takes us a few weeks. This makes a big difference. And money can be an issue for my students, if they have to go out and get materials, and then a week later they have to buy more materials."

Table 4-3 highlights some of the innovative teaching and learning activities Network teachers implemented under block scheduling. The table also signals some potential challenges of adapting to a longer course period. It takes a while to get the timing figured out, teachers warned, and at first they often found themselves prepared with too much, or not enough, to do in a given block. One teacher mentioned she wished she had been more prepared for the logistics of the long block:

I didn't realize what it would be like to come prepared with two days worth of handouts. Keeping up with the paper load--a quiz, a small group topic, homework, etc. I spent more money at Kinko's than I ever have in my life because you have to have so much ready in a day, your turnaround time for materials is quicker, so you can't expect to get it copied at school.

Several teachers mentioned that the first semester under block scheduling, while exciting and energizing, feels a lot like being a new teacher.

LESSONS LEARNED: PROMISING OUTCOMES
AND CONTINUING CHALLENGES

ENHANCING ACADEMIC ATMOSPHERE
AND STUDENT SUCCESS

      Goals associated with adopting the block schedule included promoting a more academic atmosphere, and increasing student success through an accelerated schedule and innovative instruction. Progress toward these goals is evident in several Network sites. Network members reported that with the block schedule, "students and teachers have taken on a more academic role." One teacher said, "I feel I can require more of students, because I know they have two electives and one other academic class, I have higher expectations because no one else is cutting into their time, there won't be seven tests on one day." Teachers appreciate the new pace of the school, for both in-class work and administrative responsibilities. Grading is more manageable they say, and they are maintaining closer contact with students and their parents in the process. As one teacher described, "there's a lot less stress on teachers, especially around grading time, when you need to contact 70 parents instead of 180. "

      Students have also responded favorably. One Omaha teacher reported, "That first and second year I had some of the juniors and seniors saying, `this is not fair, you should have done this earlier while we were here.' They felt cheated that we hadn't done this sooner." Some teachers believe that students are now more conscientious: "[Under the old schedule] if they wanted to hide out for forty-two minutes, get a pass, go to their lockers, talk to friends, they could have. But not with ninety minutes. They know they'll be missing something." An assistant principal reported that she "sees fewer kids for discipline referrals, especially the kind due to absences or skipped classes." Students are aware of the consequences of missing an entire ninety-minute period, said several teachers. "Kids look ahead and say `I don't wanna miss that, I`ll have a lot to make up!' I'm seeing fewer absences from minor colds or whatever."

      Another positive outcome of the block schedule is that the accelerated format is providing more options for students in terms of work placements, college courses, or chances to retake courses to make progress toward graduation. As one principal said, "If a kid fails a class, he can retake it the next semester...he's not dead-ended for the whole year." The accelerated schedule also offers flexibility. A math teacher at a school where many students work out of financial necessity explained that "a lot of them work at night and they have a tough time getting to school at 7:30. So we can omit first period for them ...and that prevents a lot of dropouts. They are really appreciative. They say `You'll do that for me?'"

      Maplewood High School staff in Nashville found that the 4 x 4 block schedule was advantageous to older students who were behind as a result of failed classes. "We have a lot of students who are 18 and older, and we graduated more young men in this class than we have ever graduated. They were able to accumulate courses and graduate. For us, graduating a senior class of a majority of males was an accomplishment...we usually have fewer males."

      Block scheduling also promoted innovative instructional adaptations, as described in the previous section, and provided time for internship, work, and introductory college experiences that are part of successful school-to-work initiatives. One school reported that the block schedule was useful for "placing senior students in internships and work placements, because more students had met all requirements by first semester, and by second semester all they had was English 4." The internship coordinator at Bryan High School in Omaha reported that internship placements had tripled since the move to block scheduling, a positive outcome that clearly posed some logistical challenges.

      In Nashville, the block schedule made it possible for an English teacher from a community college to teach at the high school, and for high school students to visit the college. This arrangement provided "kids a look at the college experience, especially those who had never considered going to college, and they got dual college and high school credit for the English course." Schools in the Baltimore area offered community college courses through distance learning, providing students options for early admission and faster progress toward an associate degree.

      The accelerated pace of the block schedule has been a concern at some sites, in the case of students who have completed required courses and earned enough credits to graduate, but who are not yet prepared to leave high school. Some strategies Urban Schools Network sites have used to encourage students to stay in school through senior year include offering required courses only during selected semesters, developing new and exciting elective courses, involving more students in internship or work placement options, and developing concurrent enrollment agreements with community colleges.

CONFRONTING CHALLENGES

      Urban Schools Network sites confronted a number of challenges and surprises, including the issue of students acquiring enough credits to graduate early, during the implementation of their new schedule. A number of these challenges were anticipated as a result of thorough research during the schedule change decision-making process in which schools carefully considered what they might gain and what they might lose with various schedule options. To some staff, the disadvantages of the existing seven-period schedule were simply viewed as "givens," while the potential problems of a block schedule were considered serious disadvantages. Through the research and change process, however, a close examination of the given disadvantages of the existing schedule resulted in a decision to move to block scheduling.

      At most sites, the challenges confronted during the implementation process were viewed as issues to work out rather than insurmountable problems requiring a return to a traditional schedule. The challenges mentioned by Urban Schools Network staff included concerns about coverage, testing, and absenteeism, and the complexity of the scheduling process itself.

CONTENT COVERAGE AND SEQUENTIAL COURSES

      Some teachers raised concerns about the challenge of covering required course content within a single semester. Although students have the same amount of in-class time under a block schedule (e.g., ninety minutes for half a year rather than forty-five minutes for the whole year), there are only half as many days over which to assign reading, homework, or practice, in the case of music and language classes. One English teacher said that although she is now covering topics in more depth, she is not able to cover the same amount of literature she covered before. She feared that "the block is not as good for [advanced] kids. They need more than a semester with us. I'm ashamed I'm cheating them. I'm ending with F. Scott Fitzgerald...American Lit ends in the 1920s!" She added that one of her colleagues, frustrated with trying to prepare students in one semester for the Advanced Placement exam in English, concluded that "ninety minutes a day does not equal forty-five plus forty-five." This was perceived as particularly true in schools where fall and spring semesters had different a number of school days due to holidays and vacations.

      Another concern, expressed by those who teach classes like math and foreign language, which build on knowledge learned in the previous course, was the potential for a year-long gap between two courses in a sequence. For example, a student might take French 2 during the fall semester in tenth grade, but not take French 3 until the fall or even spring of eleventh grade. A language teacher from Omaha said she found it necessary to devote a few weeks at the beginning of the semester to review. Other teachers noted that they always found it necessary to review at the beginning of a class, even under the old schedule, with only a summer vacation between sequential classes.

      To address these concerns, some schools under the block schedule continue to offer selected courses year round, in some cases combining two classes to share a block. Other schools build in an activity period where students can practice musical instruments, review concepts with an Advanced Placement teacher, or participate in any number of other school activities. While many teachers are still struggling with coverage, or "getting to the end of the book," under the new schedule, most expressed confidence that they are covering topics in depth, and that they are gradually adjusting their lesson plans to fit a longer period for half a year.

TESTING

      Another challenge related to coverage and sequential courses is preparing students for standardized tests at the appropriate time. A principal from a school not yet operating on a block schedule expressed this concern:

What if a student has a math class first semester freshman year, but not second semester, then still doesn't take math the next semester, and does not get math again until second semester sophomore year? But we have math testing sophomore year. We have to look at scheduling those courses so students can pass those state tests.

      An administrator from Baltimore responded:

State mandated tests were a concern for us too. If we know a majority of students will have to take the reading or social studies tests and so on, we have scheduled them into classes that relate to those tests as close as possible to the time for that testing. Of course you can't do it [schedule every student according to required test] one-hundred percent, so we had to implement some other things, such as Saturday coach classes.

The school also reorganized the schedule to prepare for a writing test. Only students involved in the testing attended school for a certain day, and every teacher in the building was involved with preparation for the test, resulting in high scores.

      To prepare students for Advanced Placement (AP) exams, which are administered in May, some schools teach AP courses during the spring semester; others offer test review for fall AP classes; and still others hold AP courses year round. Due to the increasing numbers of schools operating on a block schedule, AP tests are likely to be offered in the winter semester, too. In preparation for all types of testing, Network representatives encouraged those involved with the master schedule to take testing into account, and for all staff to consider supplementary strategies for test preparation.

ABSENCES

      In spite of reports that the block schedule has enhanced the academic atmosphere of many schools, student absences remain a concern at virtually all Network sites. Teachers and administrators asserted that "the major problem is absences. That's what prevents us from getting our jobs done," and concluded that "most failures are due to absences." Attendance problems are not a result of the block schedule, but absenteeism, which was a major problem in the past, is an even greater concern when curriculum units are covered in less time, meaning that a student who is gone for a few days may miss an entire unit.

      Several teachers believed that the block schedule had encouraged some students to think twice before missing class, and some sites reported modest improvements in attendance. However, the block schedule seemed to make little difference for chronically absent students. A Nashville administrator summarized the situation, "We have a high dropout rate and high absenteeism at our school. Those students who came to school [before the block schedule] still do, those who didn't still don't. The 4 x 4 has no effect on them at all. Either they want to be there or they don't." Similar experiences were reported elsewhere. A teacher and school scheduler from Milwaukee's North Division High School reported that the school's citywide rankings for grade point averages of students with at least ninety percent attendance increased markedly under the trimester schedule. While "the 3 x 3 has had a dramatic effect on the good students--they are excelling tremendously...those students who didn't come to school before still don't come."

      Network sites have tried various strategies to deal with absences. Some sites have offered Saturday or after-school opportunities for makeup work. In Nashville, Maplewood High School is working to communicate the importance of attendance to parents, and if "students miss seven days in a semester, they cannot get credit, even if they passed the course." Exceptions may be granted in cases of illness or other emergencies. At another Network site, the policy is no more than five absences in nine weeks, but the policy is not strictly enforced, creating requests for makeup work and additional work for teachers.

      An administrator from Baltimore's Lansdowne High School also stressed the importance of explaining to parents the impact of absences under a block schedule, that "being absent one day is like being absent two days in terms of information missed." Lansdowne attacked the attendance problem with grant money. "What we chose to do was to get an attendance officer, with a computer, phone line, and so forth, with the specific role to reduce absenteeism." One approach used was calling students' employers and making them aware that students needed to make up school work by staying after school. Employers were asked if they would adjust students' work schedules so they could fulfill their academic responsibilities. Most employers were very cooperative, and "when students saw the impact of absenteeism on their paycheck, it made quite an impression."

THE SCHEDULING PROCESS

      A final challenge reported by Urban Schools Network sites is the complexity of the task of scheduling an entire school of staff and students. The block-scheduling literature (e.g., Canady and Rettig, 1995) and representatives of Urban Schools Network sites recommended a thoughtful and detailed schedule planning process. At some schools, an assistant principal is in charge of the scheduling process, while at others the scheduling process is led by a teacher or administrator assigned the job of "master scheduler." No matter who takes the role of master scheduler, at least one staff person needs to look at the schedule holistically, and other staff, such as department chairs, need to review the schedule for its impact on particular areas.

      Designing a new schedule requires careful consideration of the potential ripple effect of schedule changes on all school operations, and vice versa, including:

• the district and other school calendars;

• middle schools and junior high schools;

• holidays and vacations;

• standardized and state testing;

• district data system and software for grading, attendance, and other records;

• lunchtime and cafeteria capacity;

• passing time and bathroom facilities;

• bus schedules;

• staffing needs;

• substitutes;
• course sequences;

• transfer students;

• audiovisual needs;

• photocopying needs;

• textbook usage and costs;

• supply budgets for materials-heavy courses; and

• enrollment in electives.

At most Network sites, schedulers face the added challenge of scheduling students into classes appropriate for their career academy or career pathway.

      As an example of the ripple effect of the block schedule, Bryan High School in Omaha, among several other Network sites, experienced increased enrollment in many courses, including electives. Bryan teachers reported for some electives and foreign language classes "that previously enjoyed only fifteen students in the class, are now looking at thirty." The larger numbers of students scheduled into electives meant the supply budgets for classes such as Nutritional Science, were not sufficient when class size increased dramatically. After the initial implementation years, schools may be more accurate in predicting the impact of block scheduling on various areas of school operation.

      In the process of considering all the possible areas of impact listed above, and taking into account individual student and teacher needs and preferences, it becomes clear that putting together a school schedule requires tradeoffs and compromises, and an awareness that a single schedule will not satisfy everyone completely. Although the schedule requires constant reworking, it is impossible to accommodate every individual need. As one assistant principal charged with scheduling put it, "when one department comes with a concern, it's just a sliver of the pie." Her advice is to let those who present a concern "have a go at rescheduling" to accommodate their requested change. When they attempt to change one class, it is likely to affect every other class in some way. When staff are given the chance to see firsthand all the repercussions of a suggested change, they are likely to become more flexible and accept the inevitable compromises.

      School scheduling is much like the plastic puzzles with numbered squares that require moving one piece at a time with the goal of getting all the pieces in the right place. When you move one piece closer to its appropriate position, it will often undo the work done to get another piece to its correct spot. In schedules, and in puzzles, with patience, creativity, and perseverance, all the pieces will eventually fit together.

CONCLUSION

      Among Urban Schools Network sites, the scheduling process came to be viewed as an ongoing series of tradeoffs and compromises. The task of scheduling, which requires revising and refining from semester to semester, is never finished. Schools learned that a change in the school schedule is more than a logistical modification in minutes, hours, and semesters. New schedules present options for additional changes, changes that challenge existing assumptions about instruction and learning, and about curriculum content and coverage. It is not surprising that investigating and implementing alternative schedules went hand in hand with other reform efforts at Network sites.

      When weighing the overall challenges and successes of block scheduling, not a single teacher we spoke with during focus group interviews wanted to return to a traditional schedule. Teachers and administrators viewed the implementation problems they experienced as hurdles to climb over, not as permanent barriers to success. Rather than calling for a return to the seven-period day, NCRVE's Urban Schools Network sites are focusing their work on adjusting and fine-tuning their schedules to best serve the needs of students, staff, and community.

REFERENCES

"Bryan High School Block Schedule Update" from the Omaha Public Schools Department of Instruction and Special Education (7/22/96).

Canady, R. L. & Rettig, M. D. (1995). Block scheduling: A catalyst for change in high schools. Princeton, NJ: Eye on Education.

Canady, R. L. & Rettig, M. D. (Eds.) (1996). Teaching in the block: Strategies for engaging active learners. Princeton, NJ: Eye on Education.

Carroll, J. M. (1989). The Copernican plan: Restructuring the American high school. Andover, MA: Regional Laboratory for Educational Improvement of the Northeast and Islands.

"Ensuring your school's future: High school block scheduling." (November 9, 1995). Video conference tape and participant's guide. Available from Educational and Distance Learning Technologies (EDLT), Division of Continuing Education, University of Virginia at 1-800-346-3882.

Sadowski, M. (1996). Just like starting over: The promises and pitfalls of block scheduling. The Harvard Education Letter, 12 (6).

[1] The art of school scheduling involves the continual tweaking and refining of a chosen schedule to best suit the requirements of a particular setting. Given this customization process, a number of scheduling alternatives fdall under the broader heading of block scheduling. For a comprehensive introduction to block scheduling, consult Block Scheduling: A Catalyst for Change in High Schools, by Canady and Rettig (1995), who explain several schedules, including the alternate day schedule, the 4/4 semester plan, trimester plans, and even single-course plans, and provide rational, detailed diagrams, and possible modifications for each scheduling option.