|
| Stasz, C., & Brewer, D. J. (1999). Academic Skills at Work: Two Perspectives (MDS-1193). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California. |
In this section, we attempt to characterize individuals' skill bundles. We do so by examining student survey items relating to academics, extracurricular activities, and part-time work. In addition to mapping out the kinds of academic skills students have in terms of test scores, grades, and accumulated curriculum units, we also examine participation in extracurricular activities and work in after-school jobs. As noted earlier, there are some differences between cohorts in the measures available, so we present the results for each cohort separately. The figures reported are based on unweighted tabulations of the data, although all statistics were also calculated using sample weights supplied by NCES to make the figures "nationally representative." Few differences were found between the two sets of figures, and we prefer to report in the text the unweighted ones.[26] In this section, we rely on descriptive statistics (means, frequencies, and correlations) in an attempt to discern patterns in the data; the section that follows contains multivariate analyses.
We describe skill bundles in three ways. First, we divide the sample according to the individual's education status-- whether the individual obtained a high school diploma with their graduating class ("high school graduate"), received a GED ("GED"), had failed to complete high school ("dropout"), or was an early graduate or other by 1982 in the HSB case, or by 1992 in the NELS:88 case.[27] Tables 4.2A and 4.2B show the means and frequencies of the measures of academics, extracurricular activities, and part-time work for the 1982 and 1992 high school classes, respectively. Second, we divide the sample according to academic ability as measured by the mathematics test scores in HSB and NELS:88[28]; these results are in Tables 4.3A and 4.3B. Third, we divide the sample according to their status two years after high school. Individuals' primary activity is used to classify status as out of the labor force, unemployed, attending a two-year college, four-year college, or employed (see Appendix II for detailed definitions). These tables are designed to illustrate the types of skills individuals have. These groupings are chosen because of the traditional focus on academic and labor market outcomes and our interest in the relationships between non-academic skills and these indicators.[29]
| Dropout | High School Graduate | GED Holder | Early Graduate/ Other | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | ||||
| 10th grade math raw score
Maximum number right = 18 | 6.45 (2.94) | 10.10 (4.01) | 7.87 (3.94) | 8.54 (3.76) |
| 12th grade math raw score
Maximum number right = 38 | 12.60 (4.81) | 21.25 (8.04) | 16.09 (6.59) | 17.09 (7.22) |
| GPA | 1.43 (0.69) | 2.55 (0.71) | 1.70 (0.80) | 2.07 (0.85) |
| English credits | 1.86 (1.12) | 3.91 (1.14) | 2.19 (1.32) | 2.90 (1.37) |
| Math credits | 1.21 (0.83) | 2.71 (1.22) | 1.44 (0.90) | 1.87 (1.10) |
| Extracurricular | ||||
| 10th grade team sport | 38.18 | 57.11 | 42.24 | 46.34 |
| 12th grade varsity sport | -- | 35.87 | 20.00 | 26.73 |
| 10th grade drama | 7.34 | 11.58 | 10.33 | 9.69 |
| 12th grade drama | -- | 14.49 | 17.14 | 12.63 |
| 10th grade band | 11.76 | 16.40 | 11.99 | 14.90 |
| 12th grade band | -- | 13.91 | 2.94 | 14.91 |
| 12th grade school newspaper | -- | 20.29 | 14.71 | 16.05 |
| 12th grade student government | -- | 18.54 | 8.57 | 14.97 |
| 10th grade total extracurricular | 1.98 | 2.45 | 2.23 | 2.19 |
| 12th grade total extracurricular | -- | 3.35 | 2.56 | 2.81 |
| Work | ||||
| 10th grade hours | 15.05 (12.28) | 10.67 (10.91) | 16.01 (12.55) | 14.08 (11.88) |
| 12th grade hours | -- | 11.51 (12.07) | 15.57 | 13.28 (13.09) |
| 10th grade wage | 2.35 (1.25) | 2.02 (1.32) | 2.49 (1.21) | 2.28 (1.29) |
| 12th grade wage | -- | 3.54 (0.90) | 3.93 (0.70) | 3.65 (0.82) |
| Dropout | High School Graduate | GED Holder | Early Graduate/ Other | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | ||||
| 8th grade math | 25.34 (7.2) | 37.45 (11.9) | 30.57 (9.0) | 31.03 (10.3) |
| 10th grade math | 28.67 (9.2) | 45.11 (13.6) | 35.35 (11.0) | 35.75 (12.6) |
| 12th grade math | 31.35 (9.4) | 49.60 (14.3) | 38.30 (10.4) | 38.43 (12.4) |
| 8th grade reading | 19.74 (6.2) | 27.83 (8.6) | 23.97 (7.4) | 23.54 (7.7) |
| 10th grade reading | 21.51 (7.7) | 31.38 (9.8) | 26.48 (8.9) | 25.72 (9.5) |
| 12th grade reading | 23.04 (8.1) | 33.63 (10.1) | 29.21 (9.1) | 27.80 (9.5) |
| GPA* | 5.27 (16.3) | 14.67 (28.6) | 5.79 (16.4) | 9.75 (22.7) |
| English credits | 1.47 (1.2) | 4.01 (1.0) | 1.59 (1.2) | 2.49 (1.4) |
| Math credits | 1.03 (0.9) | 3.18 (1.0) | 1.25 (1.0) | 1.84 (1.1) |
| Extracurricular | ||||
| 10th grade team sport | 36.27 | 45.21 | 30.99 | 36.18 |
| 12th grade team sport | 34.16 | 33.08 | 39.56 | 40.88 |
| 10th grade drama | 23.16 | 17.06 | 18.90 | 20.13 |
| 12th grade drama | 24.73 | 21.50 | 35.11 | 31.98 |
| 10th grade band | 27.42 | 27.06 | 25.64 | 24.37 |
| 12th grade band | 28.03 | 25.90 | 37.50 | 32.82 |
| 10th grade student government | 18.45 | 14.62 | 14.74 | 13.21 |
| 12th grade student government | 21.98 | 21.84 | 29.02 | 28.57 |
| 10th grade total activities | 0.89 (1.67) | 2.21 (1.96) | 0.90 (1.57) | 1.28 (1.80) |
| 12th grade total activities | 0.29 (0.98) | 2.31 (1.97) | 0.47 (1.23) | 0.89 (1.51) |
| 10th grade mean hours
participated per week | 1.23 (3.28) | 3.79 (5.45) | 1.60 (4.00) | 2.12 (4.40) |
| 12th grade mean hours
participated per week | 2.36 (5.11) | 5.26 (6.57) | 2.32 (5.17) | 3.89 (6.33) |
| Performed volunteer or
service community work | 23.81 | 45.33 | 26.01 | 28.65 |
| Work | ||||
| 8th grade hours worked per week | 5.687 (7.04) | 4.374 (5.81) | 6.171 (7.05) | 5.229 (6.70) |
| 10th grade hours worked per week | 22.601 (11.23) | 17.522 (11.42) | 23.049 (11.08) | 20.743 (11.55) |
| 12th grade hours worked per week | 18.728 (13.41) | 13.908 (11.06) | 21.717 (15.09) | 15.690 (13.48) |
| 10th grade earnings per hour | 4.447 (1.71) | 4.240 (1.74) | 4.505 (1.78) | 4.408 (1.66) |
| 12th grade earnings per hour | 5.188 (1.87) | 5.291 (1.93) | 5.572 (2.58) | 5.346 (1.83) |
| *Cumulative grade point average for last year of school attended. Cumulative GPA has not been standardized. Some values exceed 100% because of quality points awarded for advanced courses. |
Turning first to the results by education level, Tables 4.2A and 4.2B confirm that high school graduates have higher test scores and grade point averages than high school dropouts. For example, on the NELS:88 in all cases, high school graduates have statistically significant higher test scores in math and reading at each grade level than do dropouts (p < .0001 in every case). A similar pattern exists for the HSB cohort. In some cases, the differences are large (one standard deviation or more). The tables also clearly suggest that high school completers have taken significantly more coursework in English and math than dropouts; interestingly (since these measures are comparable over time), over the 1982-1992 period, the gap in coursework between graduates and dropouts actually widened. GED holders and early graduates fall somewhere between these two extremes on all measures. In the NELS, for example, GEDs are statistically different from high school graduates for all test score measures (p < .0001), statistically different from dropouts at the p < .0001 level for all test scores, and at the p < .08 level for units in English and p < .0002 level for units in mathematics. For the HSB cohort, each group is statistically significantly different from the other at the p < .0001 level.
A less robust picture emerges when we turn to extracurricular activities. The HSB and NELS:88 data should not be compared for changes across time given differences in the way the survey items were framed. For dropouts and early graduates, 12th-grade figures can be calculated for only a small number of remaining students, so 10th-grade figures are more appropriate. There appears to be a positive relationship between participation in some activities and education status, particularly in the 1982 data. (In all cases, the differences are statistically significant at the p < .0001 level.) For the 1992 cohort, only in sports do high school graduates participate to a greater degree; overall, though, the number of activities is statistically significantly higher for graduates in both cohorts. Interestingly, the likelihood that high school graduates volunteer in the community is almost twice as much as dropouts, and GED and early graduates/other have levels of participation similar to dropouts. In terms of work, a different pattern emerges--academically oriented students who ultimately graduate high school work less in the 10th grade while in high school than dropouts (p < .0001) in both the HSB and NELS:88. Differences among the groups in terms of wages are small, but, in the case of the 1992 cohort, are still statistically different for high school graduates versus dropouts (p < .0011) and high school graduates versus GED holders (p < .0091); GED holders and dropouts do not have statistically different hours (p < .6082) or pay (p < .6122). Overall, the tables suggest that individuals of different education levels clearly possess bundles of skills with contrasting components. Those finishing high school are likely to have stronger academics, moderately more extracurricular activities and less part-time work.
| Quartile 1 (Low) | Quartile 2 | Quartile 3 | Quartile 4 (High) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | ||||
| GPA | 1.83 (0.7) | 2.23 (0.7) | 2.58 (0.6) | 3.05 (0.6) |
| English credits | 3.21 (1.5) | 3.65 (1.4) | 3.85 (1.2) | 3.98 (1.0) |
| Math credits | 1.72 (1.0) | 2.15 (1.1) | 2.73 (1.1) | 3.55 (1.1) |
| Extracurricular | ||||
| 10th grade sport | 47.01 | 51.19 | 57.51 | 63.26 |
| 12th grade varsity sport | 30.43 | 30.95 | 36.54 | 42.89 |
| 12th grade other sport | 37.09 | 39.06 | 42.09 | 47.18 |
| 10th grade drama | 8.54 | 9.60 | 11.00 | 15.36 |
| 12th grade drama | 11.78 | 11.75 | 13.84 | 18.01 |
| 10th grade band | 13.11 | 14.74 | 16.92 | 18.64 |
| 12th grade band | 12.71 | 12.19 | 14.92 | 14.54 |
| 12th grade school newspaper | 15.52 | 17.54 | 21.17 | 26.45 |
| 12th grade student government | 13.00 | 15.49 | 18.16 | 26.11 |
| 10th grade total | 2.28 | 2.32 | 2.43 | 2.54 |
| 12th grade total | 2.93 | 3.07 | 3.27 | 3.85 |
| Work | ||||
| 10th grade hours | 12.55 (12.0) | 11.55 (11.4) | 11.17 (11.0) | 10.18 (10.5) |
| 12th grade hours | 23.27 (12.9) | 21.77 (11.6) | 19.72 (10.9) | 17.52 (10.2) |
| 10th grade wage | 2.15 (1.3) | 2.03 (1.3) | 2.02 (1.3) | 2.05 (1.3) |
| 12th grade wage | 3.52 (0.9) | 3.53 (0.9) | 3.54 (0.9) | 3.59 (0.9) |
| Quartile 1 (Low) | Quartile 2 | Quartile 3 | Quartile 4 (High) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | ||||
| 8th grade math | 24.34 (5.3) | 30.39 (6.3) | 38.04 (7.4) | 50.15 (8.1) |
| 10th grade math | 26.48 (5.4) | 37.39 (6.7) | 47.23 (6.5) | 60.11 (5.9) |
| 12th grade math | 27.72 (4.1) | 41.04 (3.6) | 52.62 (3.3) | 66.24 (4.8) |
| 8th grade reading | 19.76 (5.56) | 24.23 (6.6) | 28.07 (7.1) | 34.81 (6.7) |
| 10th grade reading | 20.80 (6.4) | 27.09 (7.5) | 32.62 (7.8) | 39.71 (6.5) |
| 12th grade reading | 21.98 (7.1) | 29.52 (7.8) | 35.18 (7.7) | 42.07 (6.08) |
| GPA* | 11.32 (25.4) | 13.34 (2.70) | 13.83 (27.7) | 17.34 (31.3) |
| English credits | 3.16 (1.5) | 3.73 (1.2) | 4.07 (.9) | 4.21 (.8) |
| Math credits | 2.04 (1.1) | 2.73 (1.0) | 3.30 (.9) | 3.83 (.8) |
| Extracurricular | ||||
| 10th grade team sport | 42.56 | 41.19 | 44.18 | 47.50 |
| 12th grade team sport | 29.82 | 30.24 | 33.85 | 35.68 |
| 10th grade drama | 18.95 | 15.08 | 15.03 | 16.80 |
| 12th grade drama | 14.81 | 14.26 | 16.94 | 22.16 |
| 10th grade band | 26.49 | 24.87 | 25.37 | 28.78 |
| 12th grade band | 20.93 | 21.09 | 21.30 | 25.13 |
| 10th grade student government | 14.37 | 11.96 | 11.84 | 15.75 |
| 12th grade student government | 12.82 | 14.92 | 17.29 | 22.50 |
| 10th grade total activities | 1.57 (1.94) | 1.87 (1.88) | 2.27 (1.86) | 2.83 (1.94) |
| 12th grade total activities | 1.50 (1.84) | 1.94 (1.89) | 2.42 (1.89) | 3.15 (1.91) |
| 10th grade mean hours
participated per week | 1.96 (4.14) | 3.13 (5.11) | 4.14 (5.65) | 5.04 (5.83) |
| 12th grade mean hours
participated per week | 3.26 (5.87) | 4.26 (6.09) | 5.32 (6.38) | 7.06 (6.92) |
| Performed volunteer or
service community work | 24.10 | 35.32 | 45.01 | 63.28 |
| Work | ||||
| 8th grade hours worked per week | 4.520 (6.17) | 4.570 (6.03) | 4.608 (5.93) | 4.197 (5.57) |
| 10th grade hours worked per week | 20.094 (11.79) | 18.800 (11.52) | 17.451 (11.28) | 15.952 (11.36) |
| 12th grade hours worked per week | 16.257 (12.22) | 15.610 (11.12) | 13.745 (10.65) | 10.599 (9.821) |
| 10th grade earnings per hour | 4.268 (1.67) | 4.201 (1.67) | 4.164 (1.75) | 4.292 (1.88) |
| 12th grade earnings per hour | 5.179 (1.99) | 5.165 (1.79) | 5.260 (1.94) | 5.356 (1.98) |
| *Cumulative grade point average for last year of school attended. Cumulative GPA has not been standardized. Some values exceed 100% because of quality points awarded for advanced courses. |
The pattern of indicators by academic ability is shown in Table 4.3A for the 1982 cohort and Table 4.3B for the 1992 cohort. Not surprisingly, the academic measures increase positively with ability quartile--in other words, there is a strong positive association between test score, GPA, and coursetaking in math and English. (Differences between top and bottom quartiles are statistically significantly different from each other on all measures at the p < .0001 level.) The extracurricular measures suggest a positive relationship with ability--those in the top test score quartile are more likely to participate in most extracurricular activities ranging from team sports to drama and student government, with the biggest differences for the latter. Overall, the difference between top and bottom quartiles in the number of activities participated in is small in 10th and 12th grades for the 1982 cohort (but still statistically significant at the p < .0001 level), and is somewhat larger in 1992 (but with a large statistically significant difference in the average number of hours, which number about two hours per week for bottom quartile versus five hours per week for the top quartile in the 10th grade, for example). In terms of hours of work, the negative correlation with academics is clear; although NELS data show that it strengthens considerably as the students move through high school. In the 8th grade, the mean hours worked for all students is between four and five per week, and the difference between top and bottom ability quartile is statistically significant only at the p < .0055 level; for the 10th and 12th grades, the differences are statistically different at the p < .0001 level.
These results indicate, then, that the bundle of attributes possessed by students of different ability (on average) are quite different--lower test score students tend to have weak academics, more extracurricular experiences, and less part-time work.
The choices students make after high school reflect to a large extent the skill set they have available to them--the most academically able, for instance, are most likely to go to a four-year college or university, other things being equal. Those with the weakest skills presumably have a higher probability of ending up being unemployed. How do individuals with these outcomes compare on their bundles of academic, extracurricular, and part-time work experiences? Tables 4.4A and 4.4B shed some light on this issue.
| Out of Labor Force | Unemployed | Employed | Attending 4-Year College | Attending 2-Year College | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | |||||
| 10th grade math raw score
(maximum number right = 18) | 7.98 (3.85) | 7.39 (3.61) | 8.81 (3.76) | 12.28 (3.55) | 10.15 (3.72) |
| 12th grade math raw score
(maximum number right = 38) | 16.24 (7.37) | 14.60 (6.35) | 18.06 (7.18) | 26.54 (6.98) | 21.40 (7.02) |
| GPA | 2.11 (.8) | 1.87 (.8) | 2.24 (.7) | 2.98 (.6) | 2.55 (.0) |
| English credits | 3.27 (1.4) | 3.18 (1.5) | 3.48 (1.3) | 4.11 (1.1) | 3.90 (1.1) |
| Math credits | 2.09 (1.2) | 1.82 (1.1) | 2.15 (1.2) | 3.43 (1.1) | 2.72 (1.1) |
| Extracurricular | |||||
| 10th grade team sport | 48.27 | 44.59 | 50.49 | 64.68 | 55.67 |
| 12th grade varsity sport | 31.75 | 26.92 | 30.48 | 46.51 | 32.52 |
| 12th grade other sport | 40.25 | 33.82 | 37.97 | 47.83 | 40.16 |
| 10th grade drama | 9.92 | 8.00 | 8.54 | 16.33 | 9.83 |
| 12th grade drama | 11.55 | 11.82 | 11.23 | 20.10 | 12.88 |
| 10th grade band | 15.45 | 14.98 | 13.48 | 19.45 | 15.97 |
| 12th grade band | 14.82 | 13.33 | 11.65 | 16.51 | 14.51 |
| 12th grade school newspaper | 18.29 | 15.69 | 15.33 | 30.51 | 17.63 |
| 12th grade student government | 13.33 | 12.38 | 13.36 | 28.64 | 16.39 |
| 10th grade total extracurricular | 2.33 (2.0) | 2.28 (1.9) | 2.20 (1.9) | 2.73 (1.8) | 3.30 (1.7) |
| 11th grade total extracurricular | 3.18 (2.7) | 2.84 (2.7) | 2.85 (2.0) | 9.18 (2.5) | 3.13 (2.4) |
| Work | |||||
| 10th grade hours | 11.45 (11.0) | 11.86 (11.8) | 12.83 (11.7) | 9.37 (10.2) | 10.29 (10.8) |
| 12th grade hours | 10.23 (12.2) | 10.82 (13.2) | 13.51 (12.7) | 9.63 (11.7) | 11.70 (11.5) |
| 10th grade wage | 1.97 (1.3) | 2.06 (1.3) | 2.20 (1.3) | 1.94 (1.3) | 2.00 (1.35) |
| 12th grade wage | 3.46 (.9) | 3.35 (1.0) | 3.57 (.9) | 3.55 (.9) | 3.57 (.9) |
| Out of Labor Force | Unemployed | Employed | Attending 4-Year College | Attending 2-Year College | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic | |||||
| 8th grade math | 29.85 (10.3) | 28.16 (9.2) | 31.38 (9.8) | 43.90 (11.3) | 35.30 (10.4) |
| 10th grade math | 35.22 (12.7) | 32.71 (11.8) | 37.53 (12.2) | 52.96 (11.5) | 42.91 (12.1) |
| 12th grade math | 39.12 (13.7) | 36.35 (12.5) | 41.48 (12.7) | 58.21 (11.7) | 47.25 (12.4) |
| 8th grade reading | 23.18 (7.9) | 21.24 (7.1) | 23.87 (7.7) | 31.89 (7.9) | 26.74 (7.9) |
| 10th grade reading | 25.77 (9.4) | 23.74 (8.7) | 26.64 (9.2) | 36.40 (8.4) | 29.98 (9.1) |
| 12th grade reading | 28.31 (9.9) | 25.84 (9.8) | 29.04 (9.5) | 38.56 (8.6) | 32.31 (9.2) |
| GPA* | 12.88 (26.8) | 11.62 (25.4) | 11.78 (25.4) | 17.96 (31.9) | 11.87 (25.1) |
| English credits | 2.81 (1.6) | 2.72 (1.6) | 3.32 (1.4) | 4.21 (.8) | 3.95 (1.0) |
| Math credits | 2.08 (1.3) | 1.93 (1.3) | 2.37 (1.2) | 3.72 (.8) | 3.05 (1.0) |
| Extracurricular | |||||
| 10th grade team sport | 37.34 | 37.27 | 39.90 | 50.48 | 43.81 |
| 12th grade team sport | 33.59 | 31.65 | 33.14 | 40.93 | 36.18 |
| 10th grade drama | 18.77 | 20.62 | 16.81 | 18.42 | 16.79 |
| 12th grade drama | 21.59 | 22.36 | 20.21 | 24.45 | 22.39 |
| 10th grade band | 27.27 | 27.66 | 24.58 | 29.56 | 26.73 |
| 12th grade band | 27.92 | 26.92 | 23.96 | 28.47 | 27.05 |
| 10th grade student government | 13.60 | 16.59 | 11.76 | 18.59 | 14.10 |
| 12th grade student government | 20.81 | 17.29 | 18.56 | 27.44 | 21.09 |
| 10th grade total activities | 1.27 (1.77) | 1.29 (1.82) | 1.60 (1.83) | 2.75 (1.98) | 2.03 (1.93) |
| 12th grade total activities | 0.97 (1.61) | 1.01 (1.58) | 1.39 (1.73) | 3.05 (1.96) | 2.10 (1.94) |
| 10th grade mean hours
participated per week | 1.96 (4.20) | 1.76 (3.80) | 2.57 (4.68) | 5.06 (5.87) | 3.54 (5.44) |
| 12th grade mean hours
participated per week | 3.08 (5.24) | 2.94 (5.44) | 3.81 (6.09) | 7.08 (6.88) | 4.79 (6.31) |
| Performed volunteer or service community work | 33.42 | 26.06 | 31.89 | 61.22 | 40.58 |
| Work | |||||
| 8th grade hours worked per week | 4.126 (5.62) | 4.587 (6.33) | 5.303 (6.58) | 4.022 (5.44) | 4.385 (5.90) |
| 10th grade hours worked per week | 18.925 (11.46) | 20.101 (12.07) | 19.911 (11.39) | 16.155 (11.37) | 17.463 (11.30) |
| 12th grade hours worked per week | 14.106 (12.62) | 14.974 (12.83) | 17.333 (11.80) | 10.819 (10.01) | 14.711 (10.46) |
| 10th grade earnings per hour | 4.133 (1.71) | 4.353 (1.87) | 4.293 (1.65) | 4.285 (1.84) | 4.035 (1.73) |
| 12th grade earnings per hour | 5.009 (2.05) | 5.018 (1.73) | 5.296 (1.88) | 5.398 (2.08) | 5.232 (1.77) |
| *Cumulative grade point average for last year of school attended. Cumulative GPA has not been standardized. Some values exceed 100% because of quality points awarded for advanced courses. |
Those who ultimately go on to a four-year college have by far the highest test scores, curriculum credits, and GPAs. Those who enter the labor market clearly rank lower in academics than those who attend two- or four-year colleges but above those who are unemployed or out of the labor force. Interestingly, those who are employed generally have lower or comparable extracurricular participation--other than sports--to those who are unemployed, in both the HSB and NELS:88 data. (In most cases, there is no statistically significant difference between the groups.) Those who attend four-year colleges are by far the most active in all extracurricular activities. Those employed directly after high school (in both cohorts), however, have worked considerably more hours than other groups while in high school, particularly in their senior year. This is consistent with the idea that part-time work is a way of transitioning out of school for this group of students.
The tabulations suggest that individuals clearly possess, on average, a bundle of experiences that differ among individual students and contain some degree of complementarity and substitutability. In other words, although there may be some students who have high test scores and academic course credits, numerous extracurricular activities, and a great deal of part-time work experience, the more common pattern is to have either high academics and high extracurriculars, or low academics and high part-time work experience. For example, in the NELS:88 data, the underlying correlation matrix suggests that there is a weak positive correlation between math 12th-grade test score and hours of extracurricular activities in the 12th grade (r = .22, p < .0001) and weak negative correlation with hours of work in the 12th grade (r = -.21, p < .0001). Extracurricular activities and hours of part-time work are negatively correlated in the 12th grade (r = -.15, p < .0001). A very similar pattern exists in the HSB data.
[26]HSB oversamples private school students and Hispanics. In order to make sample statistics representative of the national population of 10th or 12th graders, sample weights are supplied by NCES. However, in longitudinal data such as these, calculation of accurate weights for each of the subsamples of interest to us is problematic, and it is not at all clear that weighted data give a representative picture. Weights are not used in regression models since the models control for background factors that may affect the likelihood an individual is sampled.
[27]We also explored a similar but alternative definition of education status based on high school educational attainment by 1984/1994. This alternative definition expanded the GED category but did not substantively change any of the results.
[28]Test results using the reading test to define quartiles are also available but show similar patterns to those reported here.
[29]Clearly, many other crosstabulations are possible. For example, we could examine the skill bundles of separate demographic groups--men versus women, African-Americans versus Hispanics versus whites, and so on.
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| Stasz, C., & Brewer, D. J. (1999). Academic Skills at Work: Two Perspectives (MDS-1193). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California. |