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| Stasz, C., & Brewer, D. J. (1999). Academic Skills at Work: Two Perspectives (MDS-1193). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California. |
Our analysis of mathematics at work shows how math requirements differ among technical jobs and run the gamut from basic skills (e.g., add numbers, calculate percentages) to complex applications of trigonometry (e.g., calculate spiral curves). Mathematics can be completely integrated within a discipline, as is the case with electronics, and therefore defined as part of the job. Or mathematics can be essential, but used infrequently, as is the case with the health care workers. With a few exceptions, most of the study participants use familiar labels to speak about mathematics (e.g., algebra, trigonometry). They also discuss mathematics in relation to operating specific equipment.
When we turn to science, the picture becomes quite murky. The "academic" science evident in these jobs is quite varied and often specialized and does not map well to the subject areas defined in typical high school curricula. In the context of technical work, it is more accurate to discuss science content as disciplinary knowledge which may draw on various sciences. Science, or more accurately the application of science principles, is firmly tied to technology or tool use. For that reason, our discussion emphasizes the science-technology connections and the specialization of knowledge that is needed to work with technical systems (see Table 3.2). It is often the technical requirements or work processes that create the demand for different types of scientific knowledge and understanding.
Table 3.2
Science and Technology Applications
| Science/Disciplinary Knowledge | Technology/Tool Examples | |
| Construction Inspector |
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| Survey Inspector |
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| Traffic Signal Technician |
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| Test-Cell Technician |
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| Equipment Technician |
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| Home Health Aide |
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| Licensed Vocational Nurse |
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Electronics is one discipline which applies to several jobs in our study: traffic signal technicians at TA and test-cell and equipment technicians at the MPM. As mentioned earlier, electronics is central to traffic management work and the way technicians and others within a community of practice define what they do. The dominance of electronics and the increasing demand for workers with more and more sophisticated electronics background is directly related to a major shift in signal technology. One manager described this change as follows:
Basically, the original traffic signals are all electromechanical. In the past, a person with a good mechanical ability and a good reading comprehension could come in, and after four or five or six months of on-the-job working with other technicians and other electricians could pick up the repair and the maintenance of traffic equipment. Over the last 20 years, the mechanical has gone out and digital and computers have come in. Now he [the technician] still needs mechanical ability to disassemble and tear apart equipment, but he has to have a high technical ability to understand computers--software, hardware, programming--and how to troubleshoot all the sophisticated electronics and computer equipment. You have to have the technical basic building blocks. You need the math, you need the physics, you need the electronics. [TM manager]
The old electromechanical controllers used alternating current similar to what is found in a house. The flow of current can be easily tested with a test light or a volt meter of simple design. Now the controllers can be fine-tuned to tenths or even hundredths of a volt, which makes them harder to maintain and repair: "Any kind of grit or any kind of a solder splash will cause problems." The technicians need to be familiar with different kinds of semiconductors. According to a supervisor, "They have to have the expertise to know, not so much how to construct that [a semiconductor] but they need to know the theory behind semiconductors, behind erasable program readable memories--that type of stuff. That's where the computer technology comes in."
Managers and supervisors also feel that it is easier to train a digital or computer technician to become a traffic technician than it is to train an electrician how to work effectively in an electronic world.
At the MPM, the test and equipment technicians operate and troubleshoot sophisticated electronic equipment. To do so, they need to understand what each machine does and how it operates, and the underlying concepts and processes that come into play. During any operation, they may use mathematics, science, and computing skills such as programming. An equipment technician describes the elements of his job:
. . . you have to know a little bit of everything to do it. . . . It's about 80-90% mechanical, 5% electronics, plus chemistry and other science. When we look for new people [to hire in the job], we look for people with the ability to fix cars.
Another technician described the work similarly: "80% of my job is mechanical, 20% electrical." Electronics knowledge is important, but less so than mechanical aptitude and understanding of the electronic equipment. As we will discuss further, the work for these technicians is really defined by the technology they use.
The home care providers are members of a managed-care team in which knowledge and authority are linked to special certification and distributed among the team members. Knowledge is distributed among the various specialists--aides, doctors, nurses, speech therapists, pharmacists, and so on. Levels of authority in a team are related to certifications. Thus, LVNs and home health aides are not permitted to perform several tasks in the nurses' domain, including initial patient assessment, plan of care, and decisionmaking as to whether or not a patient needs to continue with care. Because of liability issues associated with health care and certification policies, the authority structure is formalized through work rules and procedures. Although both aides and LVNs need medical knowledge, what they need to know, and in what depth, depends on the tasks and procedures that they are permitted to carry out. LVNs have more responsibilities than aides; therefore, their knowledge of medicine and patient care is more extensive.
Aides need to know how to take blood pressure and temperatures, but they do not assess other vital signs (in this particular health agency). LVNs, however, take vital signs, draw blood, teach patient care to patients and their home caregivers, perform CPR, and treat wounds. Because they gather information about the patient's condition to report back to the case manager (usually a registered nurse), they need basic assessment skills as well as some understanding of physiology related to particular illnesses (e.g., diabetes). The following excerpt from the fieldnotes describes an instance where a home care worker gathers information and advises a caregiver:
The wife said that sometimes her husband experiences tremors, but the bottle on his Ventolin [his asthma medication] lists tremors as a side effect. The aide asks about his dosage and if the tremors occur soon after he's taken the medicine. The wife's response suggested that the Ventolin was not causing the tremors, and the aide made a note of the problem. She asked the wife whether she had told the doctor about these side effects. The wife responded that she had not. The aide advised her to discuss this with the neurologist at their next appointment. [HA fieldnotes]
Since LVNs have broader responsibilities, they may need extensive knowledge about medications. LVNs may review lab reports, for example, and pass them on to the nurse. Since the nurse makes the initial assessment, and the LVNs do the follow-up, the LVNs must track reports to know when or if the condition worsens and whether the nurse needs to intervene. They need to know about wounds and wound care, since they will often need to change a patient's dressings.
When asked about basic assessment skills needed by an aide, an HA supervisor gave the following example:
Things like basic skin care. They need to be able to say, this area is reddened; reddened skin means we're going to have a problem here and I need to tell my supervisor about it. And also knowing, for example, this patient was conversing with me yesterday and they're terribly confused today. That's a difference. I need to report that. Most of the people we see in home care are elderly people, so having an idea of what it means to be old and all the psychological changes that go with that are important because the aides have to deal with that.
Home care supervisors emphasize that aides and LVNs needed more skills and knowledge than similarly credentialed staff who worked in health facilities. These individuals are "in the home alone, so they have to pick up the information, and they have to know what information to pick up and report back." According to one supervisor, the medical knowledge or technical skills alone are necessary, but not sufficient: "It's the ability to problem solve and to assess the situation yourself without input from anybody else. To look at pieces of information and know what direction to go."
Knowledge develops with experience, whether it concerns reading and assessing medical symptoms or diagnosing a problem with a traffic signal controller. The following HA fieldnote excerpt about an experienced LVN provides one example:
I asked later how she can tell about a patient's condition since neither of the last two were able to speak. She said she talks to the caretakers and "just knows." She has seen the patients enough times to know what they should look like and how they will respond to her presence and touch. She has many physical indications, in this case the catheter. She can check it to see how well they are draining and what color the fluid is. She explained that today, although the caretaker said she was giving the patient a more diverse diet, the woman's urine was a bit cloudy, so the caretaker could not have been telling the truth. The nurse said she was going to report that to her supervisor.
Some technical work requires special knowledge of materials. Traffic signal technicians, for example, need to know about the strength and flexibility of different types of wire: "You have to know if you flex this copper, it's gonna break." Construction inspectors have specialized knowledge (e.g., in concrete work, electrical work) that defines their individual inspection tasks; some are specialized in several disciplines. Some of the knowledge requirements are fairly standard; inspectors describe knowledge of soils and concrete testing as "basic stuff." Each inspector makes rounds at the construction site (in this case a subway) to inspect areas specifically related to his discipline. As he makes his rounds, he is also on the alert for activity in the other disciplines. When he spots a problem or knows that the work has reached an inspection point, he contacts the appropriate inspector by radio. Thus, inspectors are knowledgeable about the materials related to their own discipline and often learn enough about other areas to increase the efficiency and quality of the inspectors' collective work on a job:
The cement truck arrived to begin pouring the wall in the ancillary area. Alex radioed Mike that the carpenters are close to finishing. On hand is a technician from an independent lab. The technician takes samples that will be used to take the cement through a 28-day stress test. Mike and the technician checked the test cylinders. These cylinders sit outside in the area of the site and are sensitive to temperature and moisture changes. Since cement is a mix of cement, aggregate, and water, Mike explains that they want to make sure that the mix can withstand climate changes while curing. It is his job to ensure that concrete inspection is accomplished according to specifications. He said they often use an independent lab for stress testing when there is a "major pour." [TA fieldnotes]
Inspectors need to be able to look at the construction to see that the "right" material, as specified on the drawings, is being used and that it is coated properly. Concrete technologies are becoming more chemically oriented, so inspectors need to keep up with changes in materials. In the following excerpt from the TA fieldnotes, inspectors present problems at a weekly meeting to solicit advice, thereby taking advantage of their collective knowledge and experience:
At a meeting of lead inspectors, inspector #2 continued by asking for advice on a cement problem: The cement was mixed with too much water and did not pass the compactor test. He said they "just missed the envelope." Other inspectors asked several technical questions about the cross aggregate base. Inspector #3 offered that "those guys [referring to the state transportation agency] are used to just adding water and let it [the cement] sit for a day, but you don't have that luxury." Others agreed that this was the problem. The gravel-voiced "old timer" asked, "What's the poundage? Most of these guys are still using specs [specifications] out of the horse and buggy days. The sharper crowd advocate using vibrating rollers." This brought general agreement that the thing to do is to have vibrating rollers on the site to use in the next street restoration. Other advice: Call back east to check on the feasibility of using "reclaim"; have the soil guy take a moisture test ahead of time; [and] find out the bond and its screening capacity. This was an open and professional discussion without grandstanding or accusation.
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| Stasz, C., & Brewer, D. J. (1999). Academic Skills at Work: Two Perspectives (MDS-1193). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California. |