In Chapter Four, we described problem solving, teamwork, communication skills, and dispositions in technical work and discussed how their definition varies by work context. According to employers and workers, these general skills and dispositions are essential for effective job performance.
In this chapter, we discuss how employers perceive their changing skill demands and how their human resource policies, including recruitment, hiring, training, and compensation, support skill acquisition and development. We also examine the sensitivity of these policies to worker needs and the social organization of work.
We discuss the institutional context of worksites in turn along several common themes--conditions affecting skill needs, selection and hiring practices, and training, including formal training and opportunities to learn on the job. The data presented here (summarized in Table 5.1) lead to four major findings: Employers do not always understand the specific skill requirements of their frontline workforce, and their selection and hiring policies do not always enable them to acquire the skills they need. Employers do little to foster skill development among nonmanagerial workers, and in some instances they take courses of action that actually undermine skill development. Employers have few connections with educational institutions that might support skill development in their frontline workforce.
Skill Acquisition and Development
| Firm | Conditions Affecting Skill Needs | Selection and Hiring | Training |
| MPM | Global market Reorganized to flexible work teams Rapid technology turnover TQM companywide | No unions 90-day probationary period Adequate supply in labor market Career path linked to skills, wages | Integrated with business strategy In-house cross-training Planned OJT Vendor training Dedicated trainers |
| Health agency | TQM/CQI Growth in home care Managed care teams Outsourcing strategy | Union contract and company policy affect hiring, wages, and promotion Licensure | Industry tradition for continuous training to upgrade and recertify skills
Dedicated trainers Planned OJT Tuition reimbursement |
| Traffic management | Significant technology changes Austerity Short-staffed | Adequate supply in labor market
Civil service restrictions Certification not required | No budget for training OJT/job rotation Community of practice trains Tuition reimbursement |
| Transportation construction | TQM in some departments Merger and downsizing | Adequate supply in labor market
Union involvement in hiring, wages Certification encouraged | Training low priority in TA Contractor supports training for certification Union training for survey inspection OJ integral to survey work |
At MPM, several factors contribute to the company's approach to securing the technological workforce it needs (see Table 5.1). First, MPM competes globally to sell its product--its competitors are large companies in the United States, Germany, and Japan. As competitors in the global market, MPM operates plants in the United States and overseas, and distributes its development, production, and related activities among the plants to competitive advantage. The main activities of the plant we visited differ from other plants and affect the technical workforce they need locally. Whereas cheaper labor costs have sent many of the lower-skilled manufacturing jobs to the firm's overseas operations, the number of technical jobs has increased with this plant's emphasis on product development and manufacture of high-end components (such as those produced under contract for the military). Workers require higher technical skills to operate and maintain the high-tech equipment used in these activities.
A second, related factor is MPM's adoption of total quality management (TQM) practices to increase their ability to successfully compete. This transition, which began a few years ago and is still in process, has, in many respects, changed the organization and the way it does business. For the work groups that we studied, TQM completely transformed work processes for test cell associates, but has had little impact thus far on the work of equipment technicians, who are most affected by rapid changes in manufacturing technology.
An executive at MPM believes that these changes have increased skill needs in the jobs under study. By and large, managers at MPM report that they are able to hire skilled workers in the local labor market, then train them to work as test cell associates and equipment technicians. As we discuss in more detail in a following section, MPM is highly committed to training at all levels of the organization--training is an essential element in its business strategy.
The workforce at MPM is not unionized. When job openings occur, the company generally advertises through newspaper ads or by word of mouth. There is some limited contact with local technical schools--one test cell associate in our study was interviewed and hired after the technical school he graduated from sent his resume to MPM. Many jobs are filled through the bank of applications submitted by job seekers.
In hiring prospective employees, MPM first looks for previous technical experience in the field. Interviews with supervisors--and sometimes team members--can make or break an applicant's chances. The interview helps assess an applicant's English-speaking ability and what a trainer describes as "intangible qualities," such as the ability to ask questions and work as part of a team.[17]
While the human resources department has responsibility for setting educational requirements and salaries and for job market analysis, supervisors in each department make hiring decisions. Once hired, technicians enter a 90-day probationary period. Staff that don't work out are simply replaced. To the human resources manager, the low "failure rate" indicates that MPM can get the skills it needs in the local direct labor market. Others we spoke with at MPM generally agree, although an equipment technician felt that the high cost of living in the Los Angeles area depressed the availability of highly skilled technicians. A trainer, however, expressed concern that many applicants seem overqualified because jobs in the area are in short supply. He worries that MPM can lose its training investment if the economy improves and these workers leave after a few years.
At MPM, training is connected to the firm's strategic plan and reflects its recent adoption of TQM principles, as well as specific needs related to the products it makes and its customers. An executive in one department we studied described his operations as "a witnessed area," where training is required by military standards and specifications, and for ISO 9000 international manufacturing specifications.[18]
Prior to the firm's adopting TQM a few years ago, a new employee was placed in the easiest job until the next employee was hired and then moved up the chain. Management accepted the fact that new employees receiving this on-the-job training reduced overall production output for some time. With TQM and the reorganization of some jobs into teams, MPM switched to a cross-training program in which progress is measured and each employee is certified to do all jobs. An executive explained that manufacturing has a "capacity-driven need [for skills]--not a demand for particular skills, but for flexibility." Cross-training provides this flexibility. Similarly, a human resources manager described cross-training as a strategy "not just for skill shortages, but for more effective operations." The firm "hires temps to fill short-term demands." The basic strategy was described as "grow our own": to produce the skills it needs in its own training program. While cross-training beyond the group level is a goal, it will be done "only if it makes sense, without forcing it."
While the commitment to training is strong in the firm, training delivery can vary by plant and subplant. It can be the responsibility of dedicated trainers in some areas (e.g., TQM for management) or subplants, or of supervisors or lead operators in others. MPM has recently formed a North America Training Team to develop companywide training standards for all the U.S. plants but, at the time of our study, training for the two jobs we studied differed somewhat. The corporate mission drives many training decisions, but the organization is still in transition to TQM, and thus some training practices or policies do not yet mesh with the overall vision.
Training for test/finish cell associates is organized around the concept of "subplant development," in which the subplant takes responsibility for training and has a dedicated trainer. Although the trainer does not have a specific budget for training purposes--he fills out a purchase order whenever he needs something--his requests have rarely been denied. The subplant analyzed previous training practices, which were driven largely by operators' requests. They found that while extensive time was spent training to "wire bond," few had problems with it (except for occasionally using the wrong wire). Rather, "non-operational" processes, as opposed to machine-related operations, appeared to cause more production problems. The subplant manager is putting together a series of non-operational training modules as part of the operators' career path, thus providing an incentive for workers to invest in training. As the manager explained:
"We are committed that these [the training modules] are going to be available; otherwise we are standing in the way of investment, which is not right."
Once the modules are completed, the supervisors will be responsible for carrying out the training program. One supervisor has formed a team of representatives from different cells to create a new format for some of the technical manuals, which he described as engineering-oriented and not user-friendly. The new formats will be incorporated into the training modules. This participatory approach enhances employee involvement in the training process. The firm considers employee input as necessary for success because "their view of what they need is better than management's view."
Planned on-the-job training to achieve cross-training consists of both classroom training and individual, one-on-one training in equal measure; some instruction is available on videotape. An "operations skills list" designates skills at three levels--0 for untrained, 1 for partially trained, 2 for fully skilled--and indicates training available for each, including how on-the-job training is linked with classroom training. Each associate and the entire cell try to increase their scores, which relate to placement on the career path. As the associates acquire training to move up the career path, their wages increase with each step (e.g., associate #1 makes $6.25-$9.00 an hour; associate #3 makes $13-$14.50 an hour). Performance evaluations using checklists have replaced written tests for skill certification because the trainer found that workers were "scared" by tests. Productivity standards are relaxed while changes in training take place, but a higher quality standard is set.
During our observation periods, we noted that some instances of on-the-job training went well, while others revealed problems. One trainee and an experienced technician visited another area so the trainee could learn to operate a particular machine that was about to be moved into the cell. The operator who conducted the training appeared unsure; she repeatedly forgot and retraced steps, and failed to answer some of the trainee's questions. She had a difficult time explaining the paperwork for recording the test results. Although the trainee did not appear to have much difficulty when left to test some chips on his own, the experienced technician consulted the manual to double-check the paperwork requirements and discovered that the operator was following an erroneous procedure.
The technicians who repair and maintain the equipment in the wafer fabrication department have a more traditional on-the-job training program, which is part of their improvement strategy. New technicians receive no formal training when they start, but are instructed on the job by an expert technician. This trainer uses a combination of lecturing, coaching, and hands-on demonstration to bring new technicians up to speed. The technicians also receive training off-site, from equipment vendors or from personnel at another plant. If the technicians are having severe problems with the equipment and down time is high, the supervisor may send one or two technicians to classes to enhance their knowledge of the technology. One technician said that being sent off-site was viewed as a bonus: "It's kind of like a reward once in a while for busting your butt." Technicians appear to get the training they need, but are sometimes hampered by lack of manpower. If a technician is scheduled to work when a technical class is being held during the work day, he must find someone to cover for him. One manager felt that training was less successful in this group because of recent growth and subsequent manpower shortages.
The firm also uses dedicated trainers and outside consultants to provide general training. One trainer conducts a "frontline leadership" program for workers, supervisors, and managers, as well as a program to teach problem-solving skills. When the firm first transitioned to TQM a few years ago, outside consultants provided training, but with mixed success. Whereas some line staff received training in just-in-time management and in cell layout, the consultant appeared to ignore other groups. MPM now has a designated in-house trainer to develop these programs.
By and large, employees at all levels felt that the transition to new work practices and the training received were successful and resulted in good problem-solving skills at all levels. Some noted shortcomings in supervisors' training. Management recognizes that the company is still in transition and could identify specific stumbling blocks. The notion of continuous improvement, for example, can be hard to grasp because it requires a change in thinking: training is not down time or "a waste, but something to be proud of." Likewise, TQM training is still idiosyncratic across factories, sometimes "cosmetic" (e.g., managers, but not frontline workers, get plaques) and prevalent for the top third of the workforce (including some team leaders, but not frontline workers).
Like MPM, the health agency (HA) has adopted TQM and continuous quality improvement (CQI) approaches to meet its goal of providing quality health care in the most cost-effective way. An important way to reduce costs and improve quality of care is to reduce hospital stays and provide post-discharge support and skilled care for patients in the home. This shift from hospital to home care affects the work and training needs of many staff, including the home health aides and licensed vocational nurses (LVNs) that were the subjects of our study. In addition, health agencies are subject to a variety of regulations and oversight that affect their staff assignments and training requirements.
The HA administration envisions many changes in home health that affect the aides and LVNs. For example, while home health has traditionally been seen as the end point of some plan of care, typically beginning with a hospital stay, the new conception marks home health as a "transition" point that can occur at various times. Thus, patients may go from an emergency room visit to home without being admitted for a hospital stay at all. As care and patient education increase in the home setting, and as the number of patients at home increases, cost-effectiveness issues are inevitably raised. HA has determined that one way to increase efficiency and productivity is to shift personnel costs by giving more home care tasks to LVNs and aides, while limiting nurses' responsibilities to initial assessment/intake and discharge.
The HA management realizes that increasing LVNs in home health is not a popular move with the nurses' union. The union is always involved when the home care division wants to change work rules.[19] It is expected that the nurses' union "takes everything on." When management wanted to increase productivity by requiring 25 home visits per week, for example, they expected grievances and subsequent negotiations.
The question at the core of the debate is whether LVNs can provide the same quality of care as RNs:
"We don't have enough work for LVNs primarily because RNs aren't willing to give up some of the things they've always done. They don't assign the appropriate patients to the LVN. . . The only thing an RN has to do is the admission and discharge assessment. LVNs can do everything else, by law."
While HA management is confident that it can train advanced nursing and certify LVNs and, in some cases, aides, to administer to patients' needs, nurses, not surprisingly, are uneasy about such changes. Even though this plan is more cost-effective, they see a trend "to send sicker and sicker people back home," and not enough "highly trained people" (e.g., nurses) to treat them. For their part, the aides and LVNs we talked to felt capable of performing more tasks, given proper training.
We cannot speculate on the outcome of this particular struggle. And whether or not the mix of staff providing home care changes, the HA recognizes many training challenges to shift the perception and role of home health care in the overall plan of care, to implement TQM and CQI processes, and to keep up with technology changes that affect home care, such as electronic blood and cholesterol monitors.
On the positive side, training in the health industry is commonly accepted as part of doing business. The HA provides continuous training opportunities for all levels of the workforce to meet both individual job and institutional certification. Management training is supported through orientation classes and a variety of courses. Mandatory training, such as in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), varies according to the type of staff. Doctors and emergency room staff, for example, receive mandatory training in "advanced cardiac life," pediatric staff in "pediatric advanced cardiac life." Home health workers--aides and LVNs--have both elective and mandatory educational activities. Many classes or seminars (e.g., on documentation or Medicare guidelines) are videotaped so that absent staff can make up any that are missed. The HA offers language classes, a 12-week cultural awareness course (taught by university professors), and, after one year of employment, reimburses other education through a tuition reimbursement program. Training is also tied to career development programs for nurses, aides, and other staff.
Total quality improvement (TQI) staff are developing methods to assess the impact of training programs. At present, staff are designing a project to determine the skills they plan to train and examine the extent to which skills are being used and procedures implemented. TQI staff meet monthly with the home health department to reinforce the TQI process.
The health agency is reorganizing under conditions of austerity and, as a result, are simultaneously hiring, training, and downsizing. The home health director sets standards in line with certification and licensure requirements; department supervisors interview applicants at the LVN or aide level. Human resources personnel verify an applicant's qualifications for the job posting. Aides require one year of home care experience and a medical/surgical certification, usually completed through coursework at an adult school. LVNs generally complete a one-year program based on an acute care model. Aides need a specified number of hours per year of continuing education to maintain their certification. The home care providers we interviewed found their current jobs through newspaper ads and internal job postings.
Although the department supervisor has latitude in hiring part-time staff, for full-time staff she is bound by union seniority rules, which can be "frustrating." Unions also determine wages, which are tied to seniority, not performance.[20]
Working within union constraints (e.g., rules applying to seniority or hiring of temporary workers), the home health division management says they take a long-term view toward acquiring and developing staff. The HA has relationships with magnet schools and career academy programs in local high schools, and encourages employees to use the tuition reimbursement program to upgrade skills.
A dedicated HA training department provides a variety of training services for home health workers. The HA establishes the budget, but senior staff in home health have an indirect influence on its determination. The HA is in a period of transition, and many operations and processes are going through review, including the training programs. As at MPM, the tensions that naturally accompany organizational change are evident here.
The designated trainer is developing new training programs for aides and LVNs to meet quality care objectives. When the trainer began this task a few years ago, the home health staff had been conducting its own needs assessments and training rather than taking part in the division training programs. The perception was that home health was "out of the loop"--department management did not want to work with the trainer or permit staff to attend education programs designed for them. In addition, the person charged to coordinate education and training left and was not replaced.
A management shakeup has turned this around, although the trainer has had to overcome low staff motivation created, in the view of several respondents, by previous poor management and disappointment with the recently negotiated union contract. When the trainer did get involved, several problems were identified in the policies and procedures, as well as gaps in continuing education for staff. Although cooperation has improved and the training program is on track, the trainer finds that staff vary in their responsiveness to training, and departments must often mandate training to ensure participation. When she asked for volunteers for pediatric patient training, for example, only one person showed up. One strategy she has adopted is to conduct education activities in conjunction with regular staff meetings whenever possible. This strategy seems to boost attendance in training sessions.
As mentioned above, new training programs are geared to quality goals. Home health aides, for example, take a class in providing home care for coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) patients. The average length of hospital stay for patients having coronary bypass, open heart surgery has been reduced to about four days. Patients have "very high acuity" when they go home because most are over 60 and need follow-up, especially in their wound care. The trainer had very high attendance at this training because "they were clamoring for that." Aides without critical care experience are "more fearful" of this kind of patient: "it freaks them out to think this guy just had an open heart, and already is home." The training builds their confidence in caring for these patients.
As new programs are being designed to meet needs and requirements, staff must simultaneously grapple with effects of downsizing in their work, including their ability to supervise students. At the same time, they are looking ahead to providing cross-training to LVNs to expand their skills and responsibilities in providing health care.
As new hires, LVNs receive training in CPR, fire and safety, a week-long orientation, and service enrichment (i.e., "how to be nice to your patients"). The department provides on-the-job training, 20 percent of which is general training and 80 percent is department-specific. LVN department administration conducts performance evaluations, which are generic, criteria-based evaluations that are coordinated throughout the region. These evaluations can also be modified to apply to home health aides.
The training program for aides is linked to a career path, which proceeds as follows: aide/registered nurse assistant (RNA), clinic assistant, LVN, registered nurse (RN), and registered nurse practitioner (RNP). The HA supports the training programs, which are coordinated with local colleges, and may include work internships at HA as part of the program. These are offered on a tuition reimbursement basis, with departments targeting individuals for career development. There is typically a waiting list for these classes and, because of staff reductions, the HA currently offers fewer classes than it has in the past.
Aides and LVNs in our sample were positive about the training they had received in the HA. An LVN said she received a three-week orientation when she switched to home health that included accompanying a nurse, social worker, physical therapist, and occupational therapist on their patient rounds. She has taken a variety of courses offered by the training department, which are advertised through memos. The aide also received extensive in-service training when she was hired, and has attended several day-long classes. She is planning to take more classes now that she qualifies for reimbursement. During the first year of employment, new staff must take these courses on their own time.
Traffic management agencies are coping with technology changes that affect technical skill needs for the entire industry. The most significant change has been from electro-mechanical to digital systems. Although traffic signal technicians still need mechanical skills to work with older equipment, they need technical skills related to computer-based signals, controllers, and the like. Newer technologies such as fiber optics, cellular telecommunications, and microwave are gradually being introduced into traffic signal management systems.
Despite significant changes in technology and agency liability for maintenance, public agencies responsible for traffic signals have no budget for training programs. Our study focused on traffic signal technician work in one city government (Agency A), but we also interviewed staff responsible for training in a neighboring larger city (Agency B) and in the county that houses them (Agency C). As we elaborate below, selection and hiring practices can hamper an agency's ability to obtain the skills it needs (Agency B), or they can be part of a strategy to obtain needed skills without providing training (Agency A).
Traffic signals are owned by jurisdictions, which have responsibility for traffic signal maintenance and can be held liable when failed signals contribute to traffic mishaps. Eighty-eight different jurisdictions, most of which are cities or incorporated areas, have this responsibility in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Jurisdictions can hire other public or private agencies to maintain their signals, or they can staff a designated workforce to maintain their own. The city that was the focus of our investigation (Agency A) maintained its own signals and also did contract work for other jurisdictions. Agency A has a reputation for being on the cutting edge of technology advances in the field and for being a "training ground."
As public entities attached to local governments, all three agencies are subject to civil service rules and requirements in their selection and hiring practices. But the civil service's impact on each is somewhat distinct.
Agency A. The manager of Agency A, the smallest site, has to write a justification for a position, which civil service must approve (and can eliminate during a budget shortfall). Applicants take a test, which assesses basic electrical and electronic knowledge, for two classifications--assistant traffic signal technician, level I and level II. Once hired, assistant techs must take certain courses at the local city college (or one of their choice) and on-the-job training (OJT, discussed below). When a technician position opens, level I or II assistant techs must "compete with all the outside world for the next position up." In reality, though, only one tech in the shop had been brought in above the assistant tech level.
According to management, the qualifying technician's test is very difficult. It includes questions about computers, electrical material, and traffic signals as well as practical tests that involve solving problems using schematics. In the past, experienced technicians with associate degrees have tested better than inexperienced candidates with a degree in electrical engineering.
When a position is open, the agency advertises in newspapers. The manager writes job descriptions that emphasize electronics skills and working on electronics devices while deemphasizing traffic signals, which many technicians still associate with electrical systems.
The agency's preference is to bring in people at the assistant level, train them, and, over time, promote from within. Respondents at all three agencies emphasized OJT as a skill development strategy, in part because technical education specific to traffic signals is not offered in education and training institutions. At most, agencies can identify prospective employees with coursework or degrees in electronics or digital systems.
Agency B. In a much larger nearby city, Agency B is hampered by out-of-date civil service classifications, which it has been trying to change for seven years. The current classification for traffic signal electrician is very broad and includes different jobs and various skill levels (e.g., construction electricians who install equipment, maintenance technicians who maintain it, and emergency traffic signal electricians who respond to emergency calls). Applicants take a general test: only about 15 percent of the questions assess electrical knowledge relevant to the job. Supervisors say that civil service is not testing directly for technician skills because "they are afraid of a challenge by all different groups that it's not work-related." The civil service rule, according to respondents, is that a skill not utilized by 50 percent of a class in the last 90 days cannot be tested for. Because civil service is responsible for validating skill requirements included on the exam, and because it is expensive to create a new exam, civil service is reluctant to break up the classification (respondents stated that the cost of reclassification in this case would be $70,000).
Agency B would like to change the classification to system signal technician, "so that we can require a minimum of two years of electronics at our journeyman trade school." Managers said the current test fails to identify appropriate applicants in two ways. First, because the test is general, applicants who pass it may not have requisite electronics skills, and second:
"We don't get people taking the exam because when you read the exam requirements, you don't see it (electronics) there. It's not even mentioned."
Agency B can interview only those applicants who pass the exam. Agency B staff felt they "can find the people [they need] if they allow us to write the description of the job." In their view, the local labor market has an abundance of digital techs and computer techs who lost jobs with the decline of the aerospace industry and who are good candidates for training in traffic signals.
Because the test is the gate to an interview for outside applicants, Agency B tries to "mine the internal job market" to find qualified technicians. The Department of Water and Power (DWP), for example, was a source of candidates for Agency B because DWP had an internal training program and "had no problem educating their people--even to the fact that they might lose them." Agency B admits, "we don't have much control over it [the internal job market]," because there are few incentives for the more qualified technicians to move. Technicians in Agency B make less money than, for example, similarly skilled staff in DWP: because DWP is revenue-generating, it maintains higher pay scales.
Agency C. The county in which the previous two city agencies reside has a classification for a digital systems electrician/technician that it can advertise and test for. The test emphasizes electronics, not signals, and applicants must achieve a 70 percent passing score to advance to an interview. Previously, the classification was traffic signal technician, and emphasized electro-mechanic skills at the journeyman level. It was able to get a title change by borrowing digital systems techs from another department. Agency C froze hiring under the old title, and now attracts and hires individuals with the skills they need.
Generally speaking, all three agencies adopt a "grow-your-own" strategy, and feel the labor market has an adequate pool of workers to select from. But because specific skills can be learned only on the job, experienced traffic signal technicians are at a premium. Agency A, which has the most sophisticated technology, loses techs to higher-paying positions in other jurisdictions. All three are understaffed but, with the exception of Agency B, are not able to hire.[21]
Unlike the health industry, certification is not required for traffic signal work. Agency A requires new techs to obtain a level I certification from the International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA). Techs must pay for and take required courses on their own time. The supervisor felt IMSA "is becoming mandatory." A tech who worked for Agency C had a level III certification which, though not required, he had completed on his own time.
"I just figured . . . every group in whatever industry you're in has their own certification classes. If you don't have it, some day you'll be required to get it."
A growing concern about litigation was also cited as a reason to encourage certification:
"I see it also as a coming thing . . . as attorneys bring litigation against the cities and counties for malfunctioning signals."
Lack of certification was not seen as a problem. Rather, if someone was certified, it indicated he had more training. Having a certification could improve a job seeker's employment chances over one who was not certified.
"If you can say, well, they've been certified, then somehow that seems to put an extra stamp of quality . . . insurance on the work, whether it is relevant or not."
In this industry, then, certification is desirable in case of litigation and indicative of a technician's training or motivation--techs in each agency have to pay for coursework themselves. There is no pay incentive to becoming certified: in Agency A, techs who were hired before level I certification became mandatory have little incentive to obtain it.
Agency A. A traffic signal technician in Agency A described his training as follows:
"What they did was, they brought me in the office . . . this current job is technician, not electrician . . . They asked me, `do you know how to turn an intersection on that's on flash?' I said, `yes, I stop-time the controller in yellow for the slow phase and as soon as the traffic's clear, I turn it on and turn off the stop-timer.' They said, `fine, you're going to start as a technician on Monday.' That was my training. There was none. They just wanted to make sure I wouldn't kill somebody when I turned on the intersection. They figure you'll learn as you go."
Traffic signal department management describes its policy as continuous OJT that begins as soon as someone is hired. There are four levels of work: maintenance assistant, traffic signal assistant, traffic signal electrician, and traffic signal technician. Most techs work up these four levels and can advance when an opening exists and the budget allows it. New and experienced techs begin out in the field with electricians and assist with "labor work"--laying conduit, digging trenches, setting poles--to learn:
how the thing goes together in the field--even if you hire a guy off the street for a technician, he still has to learn [this]. That's one of the reasons we like to get them as an assistant, because we're not paying them as much to learn the same thing.
The field experience and OJT approach is necessary because technicians may have knowledge of electronics or digital systems, but no direct experience with traffic signals. Even for experienced workers, they "don't like to take people from other cities with bad habits. We would rather grow our own techs."
A department supervisor has taken on training responsibilities as part of his job. He has been asked to put together a curriculum and a training plan that will standardize training somewhat but, because of other responsibilities, he can work on it only sporadically during the day or after work hours on his own time.
The technicians themselves note that management has enough money to buy new equipment, but not enough to teach them how to use it: "The only thing we've had is free seminars by vendors." One technician volunteered to use vacation time to take a class in fiber optics if Agency A would pay tuition; it refused. A supervisor acknowledged that some companies have good seminars on their products, but the department does not have the budget to send the techs or the manpower to let someone off work to attend them.
If the equipment has a service contract, it can be sent back to the vendor for repairs. But service contracts are typically not purchased, both for cost-cutting reasons and because technicians are expected to be able to fix the equipment. If technicians are not trained to use new equipment or if it breaks down, they "fiddle around" with the machine when they have time. Technicians felt this policy had mixed effects. It may be cheaper to replace the equipment than for inexperienced techs to attempt to repair it. On the positive side, repairing equipment helps technicians learn how it really operates.[22]
The policy of having techs repair equipment--and relatedly, not to throw anything out--is consistent with the technicians' community of practice in several respects. Technicians are "tinkerers" and problem solvers who are challenged by having to figure out solutions to problems and regularly discuss problems and solutions with their colleagues. "Tailgate" meetings are held biweekly to share knowledge developed on the job. If something comes up between meetings, techs meet informally in the shop at the beginning of the day. Technicians freely seek help from each other, as needed: one described OJT as "spur-of-the-moment and self-initiated." Thus, the community of practice supports the development of technicians' skills in the absence of formal training or structured OJT.
Although Agency A has state-of-the-art technology, it is not necessarily utilized in technicians' work, in part because training is inadequate. The push to purchase new technology, which contributes to the department's reputation as an innovator, has several motives. One is management's belief that technology can improve traffic management. (Recall the description of the "control room," for example, in Chapter Three.) Another reason voiced by employees is to maintain job security. If the city government perceives that the technology is vital to the traffic management operation and that a skilled workforce is needed to support technology utilization, then it will be less inclined to contract the work out to private companies or other agencies. Finally, managers could find political support for technology investment because politicians see such investments as a positive change that they want to be associated with.
Agency B. In Agency B, the Department of Transportation's (DOT's) manual of policies and procedures and official job descriptions give supervisors--first-level line managers--responsibility for training their staff, but no budget to do so. The DOT's position is that formal training is not necessary because it is a journeyman job class, and anyone hired into it is expected to be a journeyman who was fully trained by the union. The group we interviewed had two field staff designated as trainers, who could not be replaced with new hires. Instead, the department had two fewer staff to do the same amount of work. The supervisors received permission for this arrangement by arguing that trainers were needed for liability reasons. Management agreed, as long as the department was still able to get its work done with reduced staff. A supervisor said there is always funding for tuition reimbursement if a tech wants to pursue outside training on his own, but no funds for technical training or equipment upgrades. Classes for using the new computers were cut after a budget crunch. He described this situation as "frustrating":
"Is this any way to run a business? I think that's a problem . . . that we, that many of us continue to go to school in the private sector, and we know about the management principles, the way things are being done. And we come back here, and we just hit our head against the wall."
Agency B used to have a job rotation scheme, with staff rotating every six months. But staffing cuts have reduced its ability to continue this. Fortunately, rotation is less necessary now because Agency B has standardized the technology somewhat: it now uses only three types of controllers instead of 27.
Despite few resources for training, Agency B says its strategy is to build a labor force internally through OJT, job rotation, and mandatory in-house technical classes. Classes held on company time help ensure attendance by both apprentices (craft helpers) and journeymen. "Maintenance" labor can attend by invitation, either on their own or by a supervisor's recommendation, but must have permission to take the class during work hours. Even mandatory attendance does not ensure training, however, because emergencies always take precedence and because Agency B is currently understaffed.[23] Similarly, supervisors cannot spare maintenance workers who show promise for advancement and want to attend class.
Supervisors tell workers who are interested in promotion to take outside classes on their own. The department will reimburse course tuition, but not books, if the worker passes the class. This reimbursement covers about half of the costs. In addition, wage policies (discussed earlier) discourage worker investment in outside training.
Agency C. In Agency C, the repair lab has taken over the function of the training group for the bureau and is responsible for training some 140 employees. Its OJT aims to upgrade employee expertise "from whatever it was to a higher level. We're not going to bring everyone to the same level--whatever that is--but they will all benefit. We evaluate them as we go along and feed them the technical as they can handle it."
The policy is to hire digital systems electricians or technicians and train them in signals. There is no separate budget for training. Once a person is hired, a rotation is set up so the employee works for six months in each shop (except for a year in the signal shop). After two rotations--about two years--the individual is evaluated and placed "where he's most productive or where he'd like to work." There are exceptions to this rotation scheme, however: one technician said he spent little time in the field and did not work in construction at all.
Agency C attempts to assess skill needs and offers training classes. A systems technician who interfaces between the shop and the field to oversee special projects will report back to the supervisor when he perceives weaknesses or areas for improvement. In his view, there is "no way to get the information to people unless you tack something up and give a class." Since "technology changes occur yearly in this industry," ongoing classes are important.
"We don't expect them to know everything, but we expect them to be responsible. And if they get to a point where there is doubt in their mind because of the nature of our business, stop and call someone."
Thus, the community of practice encourages workers to ask questions and share solutions, thereby increasing the likelihood that technicians will acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need on the job. Whether reliance on informal OJT substitutes for planned OJT or training classes remains an open question. But the prevailing view of traffic signal technical staff in our three sites was one of frustration over lack of organizational commitment to training and resignation that they must do the best they can with limited training resources.
The transportation agency's mission is to build and operate a coordinated transportation system in the Los Angeles region. The cost and scope of the project place TA operations under scrutiny by the public and the press and subject it to political pressures. Two changes--a merger and adoption of TQM in one division--have hampered hiring and training in the agency itself, but affect inspection jobs only indirectly.
The recent merger and subsequent reduction in the workforce (through both layoffs and voluntary separations) decimated the human resources department and any former training capacity. The merger brought together two agencies with different training philosophies. One invested in staff training (conflict resolution, performance evaluations, safety, staff and skills development, and management training for middle management were mentioned), while the other provided only basic word processing and computer training. Agency staff and others feel that training is not a priority, but is the first item to be cut when budgets are tight. The following comments about training are illustrative:
"If there is [a human resources strategy], management has not disseminated it."
"When the agency restructured, they moved in people to HR who had no training experience or knowledge. In this way, the program was set up to fail."
Formerly, department heads set and requested budgets for training. Now, except for specialized programs, training is centrally consolidated and department heads must request funds. Human resources staff report that recent requests have been turned down. The exception is department requests for TQM-related training funds, which have been set aside to advance TQM implementation.
The agency is beginning to implement TQM in one division, but the associated training has been sparse and limited to managers in the agency or in contractor firms. Although agency departments can request funds for TQM trainers for their own staff, any TQM-related training for survey and construction inspectors working for contractors is described as "in the queue." TQM practices, then, are neither widespread nor uniform across the agency and the contracting firms. The contractor who hires the construction inspectors, for example, had initiated a quality program of its own before the transportation agency adopted TQM. But their quality assurance manager felt that training had had little impact thus far, in part because training classes aimed at all employees had fallen behind schedule. Although TQM training is only "percolating" at lower levels of the workforce, it is "the most concentrated effort at enhancing worker productivity that is taking place [in the transportation agency] at this time."[24]
Overall, we conclude that training in the transportation agency--apart from fledgling TQM-related efforts--is more ad hoc than planned. The agency merger is apparently one reason: "[we are] still trying to blend the agency at the nuts and bolts level." In addition, the traditional view of human resources may reflect the agency's focus on whether transportation needs are being met. As one trainer observed: "the incentive in the public sector is to get the job done, not to train." In this respondent's view, the private sector can and does have trainers to develop the labor pool, and it can assume the risks associated with training investments. The public sector, on the other hand, may be less willing to do so.
Study respondents expressed various opinions about the supply and quality of the inspector workforce. In one experienced manager's view, the home-building industry, which employs craft workers in the construction trades, had been hard-hit in the recent economic recession. Consequently, pools of qualified, unemployed workers sit in union halls waiting to be hired. Although required skills do not completely overlap, he thought the transition from home-building to rail construction was relatively easy. A trainer for a construction firm, however, saw a "skills gap" because inspector skills for the building trades and transportation only partly overlap. The trainer noted that the large firms that hold the major contracts have the training infrastructure to close this gap, whereas smaller subcontractors may not.[25]
Whether or not a "skills gap" exists, we conclude that the agency and contractors must concern themselves with the public's perception of quality and, relatedly, liability. When a worker has an accident or when a roadway collapses over a subway tunnel that's under construction, quality is questioned. Certification is a way to improve public relations and perhaps afford some protection if something goes wrong.
The agency can encourage the construction firms to hire certified inspectors, but this is not currently a contractual requirement. TA managers felt that "folks are reasonably cooperative" in hiring certified inspectors--the firms have an incentive to comply with TA requests because the construction contracts are worth several million dollars and the competition among firms is high.[26] A TA manager described the situation as "nip and tuck"--while safety training is mandatory, the provision of even basic training to frontline workers varies from firm to firm. Agency management, construction managers, and inspectors themselves recognize that certification standards are not uniform and not necessarily linked to better performance on the job. They also recognize that certification is limited because it only covers basic skills and knowledge; in-house training is needed to ensure quality inspections that reflect the requirements of specific sites.
The firm requires new job incumbents and inspectors from other fields to take classes at a local skills center to prepare for certification exams. A manager keeps track of their progress. This company is also developing question-and-answer study guidelines for the test in reinforced concrete building code. They also require all workers and welder and concrete inspectors to be certified by the American Concrete Institute and American Welding Institute. The company pays tuition costs for the classes, and will bring instructors in. The company covers part of the time required to attend classes; the remainder must be taken as personal time.
Not surprisingly, quality assurance (QA) managers who work for TA and the subway contract manager encourage certification even among experienced transportation inspectors. Their concern seems related, in part, to the nature of the labor market. As one manager noted, most inspectors are former craftsmen who became skilled in a particular trade. A craftsman's "mind-set" is "to get in and get out." As an inspector, the former craftsman has a much different role; he must ensure that contractors do the required work. Whereas craftsmen look for shortcuts, good inspectors know about shortcuts and look for them. Another QA manager felt that inspectors had "mediocre qualifications" because contractors are typically more concerned with making money than with hiring qualified inspectors, and because only about 65 percent of their current workforce hold certifications, some of which are unrelated to current job responsibilities. Rather than seek the most qualified, contractors depend on their internal labor market and a set of inspectors who move from job to job.
Certification is not a salient issue for survey inspectors. Union training leads to certification, but it is not required to hold a job as a survey inspector. One party chief, for example, had taken requisite union classes, but not certification tests. These inspectors worked for a smaller, family-owned company, where personal contacts played a part in hiring decisions. The chief had previously worked for his supervisor (a nephew of the owner) and was offered the job when it became available. Similarly, the rod man sought out several firm owners in the area after passing his apprenticeship test. When a position opened up, "this firm knew him."[27]
Union membership and the licensing exam are the "ticket[s] to practice" in the survey profession, where the union sets wages[28] and training policies, which help structure OJT (discussed below). Construction inspectors, although they do not belong to a union, work in a union context. Unions involved with TA's contractors pay the prevailing wage and have agreed not to strike. Compared with home health, the relationship between unions and management in the transportation agency seems more cooperative.
Construction Inspectors. Individual (construction or construction management) firms and their subcontractors are responsible for training inspectors. Contractors formed a consortium for planning, training, and staff hiring. The firm in charge of subway construction management (construction inspectors) has an in-house training staff and also hires outside consultants. Currently, training on the job is informal and supervised by lead inspectors. The company provides training to meet safety requirements (e.g., hazardous materials handling) and for certifications related to job-specific skills (e.g., American Concrete Institute). Workers learn about these courses from the trainer or at chief inspector meetings.
As TQM practices trickle down to the frontline workforce, training has begun to emphasize quality goals. For example, the company is in the process of developing training modules to be used in the field that will help standardize how inspectors should do their job on site. The goal is to improve uniformity of inspections across job sites. The emphasis is still on job-specific training--tailored to the specialty and the specifications of the job site--but cross-training is increasingly encouraged. One senior inspector, for example, reported receiving training sessions in six different construction areas--electrical, mechanical equipment, utilities, cathodic protection, masonry, and heating and ventilation equipment.
According to the construction inspectors, company management has been eager to provide training and job orientation and to answer questions. The inspectors believe these practices help develop worker expertise. They view OJT as essential to the job. Supervisors are kept up to date through continuous training provided primarily by the resident engineer for each construction segment.
Survey Inspectors. Training for survey inspectors is a combination of union-provided training, on-the-job training in line with professional standards, and formal classes to meet mandatory requirements, such as safety-related training.
Training for survey inspectors is integrated with their standards of professional practice. Following professional tradition, which is tied to union policy, the party chief and the crew supervisor are responsible for training apprentices to become journeymen chain men and for chain men to advance to party chief. New surveyors can learn "academics" from formal schooling, including the union school, but on-the-job training is crucial to developing expertise in the field. This emphasis on OJT supports the way surveyors define the nature of their work--as constant problem solving geared to the unique characteristics of each work setting. The supervisor and crew members emphasize "constant teaching" and learning as important aspects of their job.
In addition to OJT, surveyors may attend occasional training seminars conducted by equipment vendors or classes sponsored by the union. Workers are satisfied with union training, but tend to avoid vendor seminars because they take too much time for the information presented and are usually followed by a sales pitch. As one inspector said, "I could read a book to get the needed information."
When new technology is adopted at the worksite, the supervisor expects crew members to read the manual and learn to "figure it out" on the job. Again, this practice is described as "tradition," because the pool of surveyors is small and it is not cost-effective to offer special courses. This practice was accepted by the survey crew and stands in contrast to the expectation of traffic signal technicians, who expressed frustration at having to teach themselves how to use new technology purchased by management.[29]
Like the traffic signal technicians, the survey inspectors are members of a community of practice that supports on-the-job training in the absence of formal training. But we note some important differences. First, survey inspectors clearly articulate notions of professionalism and tradition and their importance in carrying out the work they do. Their strong sense of professionalism permeates discussions about training, working as part of a team, and meeting quality performance standards. Traffic signal technicians, on the other hand, emphasize their individual expertise. Practices like "tailgate meetings" or asking questions when help is needed are in place to support a weak system--where training is not valued once hired, and where job rotation policies to promote cross-training and the development of expertise are lax.
[17]MPM management stresses teamwork for employees at all levels, whether or not they are members of formal teams, like the test cell associates. Being a "team player" is valued in their TQM environment because each employee is expected to apply his or her specialty to solving problems and improving work processes for the common good. A manager says they discourage "Lone Rangers" and "heroes" with a "let me show you how smart I am" attitude.
[18]ISO 9000 is a system of quality management standards that has become virtually required for firms to compete in many international markets.
[19]HA has dealings with 11 unions. Two are involved in proposed changes in the home care division--the nurses' union and the service employees' union. A 10-week nurses' strike in 1990 produced bad feelings, which apparently still affect management-union relations. We made several attempts to interview union representatives for this study, but were unsuccessful in gaining their participation. As a result, this discussion reflects management's views alone.
[20]This appears problematic for implementing CQI; if salaries are linked to seniority, then supervisors' performance assessments have little impact.
[21]At the time of our interview, Agency B was hiring eight technicians because the city received Federal Emergency Management Assistance (FEMA) after the January 1994 Northridge earthquake.
[22]Training can make a difference in whether technology is utilized. Both MPM and Agency A have fluke testers, a multifaceted electronic testing device. At MPM, where training is provided, the equipment is in use; at Agency A the same machine stands idle because the tech trained to use it left the agency.
[23]State guidelines suggest a ratio of 60 signals per worker, and the industrial standard (U.S. Association of Traffic Signals) is 35 per worker. The three agencies have significantly higher signal-to-technician ratios: Agency A reports 120-150:1, Agency B, 150:1, and Agency C, 75:1.
[24]The TA also has special programs designed to help train the current and future workforce. The Job Development Training Program (JDTP), for example, began with economic development funds received by the city to help rebuild after a period of civil unrest. The TA commissioner wanted to provide more employment opportunities and to hire the unemployed. Funds for JDTP will come from the contractors, whose contract stipulates that 3 percent of direct labor costs must be set aside for training purposes. A consultant was hired to work with the contractors to develop a plan. JDTP, which is still in the planning stages, will target some training resources for unemployed, minority individuals, ages 17-25, for jobs in construction inspection, and to increase technical skills of incumbent workers. The agency also supports school-to-careers programs at several high schools to help prepare students for transportation-related careers. These programs are aimed more toward professional occupations--such as architecture, urban planning, and engineering--than at sub-B.A. technical jobs. Several respondents said these activities were not part of a strategic plan, but result from efforts of a single individual who has successfully pursued grants to support educational development projects.
[25]The agency's decision to train inspectors through the JDTP initiative is based on an "educated guess" about future needs, not on a formal job market analysis. At least one manager felt this was short-sighted and expressed concern over trainees' ability to find jobs.
[26]The agency plans to make certification a requirement in future contracts. Presently, they encourage 90 percent of the staff to hold appropriate certifications.
[27]And when the firm had to downsize from three to two crews, the staff who stayed on "were not the best," according to surveyors, but those who had been with the company longer.
[28]According to a supervisor, union surveyors earn 50 percent more than do non-union surveyors in California, and twice as much as prevailing union wages in some other states.
[29]One survey inspector, however, while accepting of the present policy, feels that firms should invest more in training and apprenticeships in order to keep up with future technology changes, such as those that will capitalize on the Global Positioning System. In his view, firms need to overcome the fear that training will lead workers to leave for other jobs. Rather, "workers leave because they are unappreciated."