OVERVIEW OF PROGRAMS AND WORK EXPERIENCES

• Program Overview
• Work Experiences

Program Overview

This chapter provides an overview of the programs we studied and descriptions of students' work experiences in each. As indicated in the previous chapter, we completed work observations and interviews in three programs: a Transportation Career Academy Program (TCAP); a Medical Magnet High School (MMHS); and a School-Based Enterprise (SBE).

The three programs discussed in this report operate in the same large, metropolitan school district and serve similar populations of students.

The first program, TCAP, consists of three "schools within a school" at three different high school campuses. TCAP focuses on a transportation career theme, which is integrated throughout the curriculum. About 170 students participate across the three campuses. During the summer of their junior and senior years, students can participate in an eight-week, paid internship in a transportation-related field. The program emphasizes preparation for entry-level jobs in transportation-related occupations; for technical careers in related industries; and for professions in engineering, architecture, design, or urban planning, as related to transportation.

MMHS[10] provides unpaid internships in a variety of medical settings. The school emphasizes a college-preparatory curriculum for students in grades 10-12, with internships primarily provided for the purpose of career exploration. Tenth-grade students rotate through several placements for one morning a week throughout the school year. Juniors and seniors work one morning per week in one or two settings for the year; some students are hired to work in the summer as well. Students receive elective course credit for their internships.

The SBE, where students sell their own salad dressing and produce from their garden, is housed on a high school campus. The 35 to 40 student-owners work after school each day for a few hours, odd hours over weekends, and over the summer. Students learn all aspects of running a business, with a focus on entrepreneurial skills. While the program is not linked to a particular course of study in school, there is a strong emphasis on academics and college preparation.

Program Operation and Nature of Work Experiences

As mentioned earlier, the three programs show marked differences in some important dimensions--whether work is paid or unpaid; the relative emphasis of school versus work; and the length, number, and type of work experiences available. The programs are similar, however, in other important respects. Table 3.1 summarizes some important features of the programs.

Origin

The programs have very different origins, which partly explains the differences among them in the relative emphasis between school and work.

TCAP began in 1992 as an industry-education partnership, led by the local transportation agency. The transportation agency is in the midst of a 30-billion-dollar construction project which will require many skilled technical workers. The agency started the program as one way to promote workforce development in the region. The program's goals were to (1) create a prototype program for 9th- to 12th-graders geared to preparing them for careers in the transportation industry, (2) focus on the future education and training needs of those youth affected by the civil disturbances in Los Angeles, and (3) provide adequate linkages with business and employers to ensure that education and training match existing meaningful careers. Three high schools are participating, for a total of about 170 students (60 each at two schools and 50 at the third). About 65 11th- and 12th-grade students were paid interns in the summer of 1996.

MMHS opened in 1982 through the efforts of a local medical university faculty who wanted to increase the number of minority youth pursuing health-related careers. They started the program at a local high school with a foundation grant, then lobbied the school district to support it as part of their magnet high school program. In the 1996 school year, MMHS enrolled 220 students in grades 10-12. MMHS was initially located at a local high school, but now occupies space next to the medical university. According to the principal, one reason for this move was to preserve the school's college-preparatory focus. The administrators at the original host high school wanted the program to provide work experiences that might help students prepare for entry-level work right after graduation.[11] MMHS administrators, however, did not want to run a "vocational" program--they felt that the students should, first and foremost, be preparing for college, whether they ended up pursuing a health-related career or not.[12] Over the years, MMHS established a reputation for excellence: state and district evaluations consistently rank it as one of the best schools in the state. In 1994, their graduation rate was 98.9%, with 90% of the students going on to college.

SBE began in 1992 following the Los Angeles riots. The students, who were already working a quarter-acre garden, decided they wanted to give something back to the community so they decided to create a product to sell. Building on their garden activities, they did some research and found that salad dressing is a top-selling product, and something that consumers are willing to experiment with. With some outside help from a local businessman in the salad dressing business, they developed a recipe for their first product. This year they introduced a second product. This program exposes students to all aspects of running a business, but also emphasizes college preparation. The student-owners receive points for hours worked and for participating in other activities (including academic activities like SAT preparation sessions). These points are converted into company shares. Upon graduation, students receive cash payments for shares, which they can use for college or other postsecondary education.

Selection

Each TCAP school recruits students by different methods. One school recruits students for the 9th-grade classes based primarily on student interest. Another started their program with 11th and 12th grades and used an application and interview process. The third school enrolled 9th-grade students through an application process. Since the school district and these schools have a large minority population, most students enrolled in these programs are Hispanic and African-American. The enrolled students appear to be fairly representative of the student body as a whole in their respective high schools.[13]

MMHS does not choose its students, but takes those assigned by the district through the magnet school lottery enrollment system. Students who apply for MMHS are supposed to come with some interest in pursuing a medical career. New SBE participants are recruited and selected by the current student-owners. New students go through an internship period, after which student-owners will vote on whether or not they can remain. Each year they elect enough new students to replace the number who have graduated. They must maintain a C average to remain in the program.

Work Experience

TCAP students must be at least 16 years old to participate in WBL and must work full-time for eight weeks over the summer. As mentioned earlier, MMHS students spend one morning a week at their internship. Tenth- and 11th-graders rotate through four sites during the year, spending three to five hours per week at the internship site. Seniors typically spend five hours a week at one or two sites. Tenth-grade students also attend class two hours a week, which typically features guest speakers. SBE students work a varying number of hours, depending on their own level of interest. The office is open weekday afternoons from 3:30-6:00 p.m., weekends, and full-time during the summer.

As for type of work experience, the TCAP students intern in a transportation-related firm (such as engineering or construction). The MMHS students all intern in some health-related area (e.g., clinics, hospital departments, medical research laboratories, veterinarians' offices). SBE students have the opportunity to work on all aspects of the business, but in a single establishment--the business operates in a space provided by the high school.

Student survey data provides some information on the types of work experience provided in each program. We asked students to report the title of their job or position and their main duties (see Tables 3.2 and 3.3). More than three-quarters of TCAP students described themselves as clerk/secretaries, the MMHS students described themselves as volunteers[14] or as medical assistants, and the SBE students described themselves as student-owners.

TCAP students described their main duties as clerical (78%) or data entry (11%) (see Table 3.3). By contrast, only 4% of MMHS students and none of the SBE students described their work as clerical or computer-related. The MMHS students were engaged in laboratory work (23%), going on hospital rounds (13%), or working with patients (21%), while the SBE students were engaged in all aspects of the business.

According to the survey, students in all programs seem equally satisfied with their work experiences as a whole (mean ratings 4.22 for TCAP, 4.18 for MMHS students, and 4.45 for SBE, on a five-point scale, 5 = extremely satisfied). Only three students, all enrolled in TCAP, said they were "extremely dissatisfied" with the experience.

Coordination

Two of the programs have a written agreement between the school and worksite. TCAP does not have a formal contract with the employers at this point, but would like to develop one in the future. TCAP does run an orientation session, however, in which the supervisors and interns have an opportunity to meet each other before the internship begins. In addition, students have training sessions to prepare for the internship. They cover topics such as how to dress and how to behave at work.

At MMHS, each resource site provides a statement of learning objectives that all students are expected to achieve during the rotation. In addition to keeping their daily journals, at the end of each rotation students must answer questions corresponding to the learning objectives, interview two people at the site, and learn about the college path to their job. Supervising teachers collect journals and monitor student attendance at the internship site.

The students in SBE are employed at the school site, so contracts with outside firms are not necessary. They rely on on-the-job training to teach the students how to perform their work responsibilities.

Students in the programs responded similarly when asked some general questions about school and their future aspirations. Students generally like going to school; about 60% at the MMHS and over 70% at SBE and the TCAP program like it very much (marked 4 or 5 on a five-point scale, where 5 = "like school very much"; mean ratings 4.16 [.93] for TCAP, 3.82 [.85] for SBE, 3.76 [.84] for MMHS). TCAP students were the most likely to say that schoolwork is meaningful and important (mean ratings 4.14 [.75], versus 4.07 [.74] for MMHS, and 3.59 [.96] for SBE, where 5 = "almost always"). TCAP students were also the most likely to feel that school learning would be important in later life (mean ratings of 4.51 [.69], compared to 4.13 [.75] for MMHS, and 3.77 [.97] for SBE students, where 5 = "very important"). Students in all programs had high educational aspirations. About 85% of MMHS and TCAP students and 95% of SBE students wanted to achieve a B.A. degree or higher. The SBE students were more likely to feel "very sure" that they would reach their educational goals (51% of TCAP students; 57% of MMHS; and 73% of SBE students).

Work Experiences

We observed two TCAP students working at two different construction management firms and two MMHS students working in a university research laboratory. At SBE we organized observations around activities, each involving many students. In the remainder of this section, we describe WBL in these programs. These scenarios are based on data gathered from observations, interviews, and documents collected at the sites. They are intended to convey a picture of the job in the larger contexts of work and organization. In the next section, "Learning at Work," we characterize the learning environments and describe the skills students learned in more detail.

Working in Transportation Construction

Ray begins his workday at 7:00 a.m. by filling up a mug of hot chocolate and taking it and his breakfast into the conference room.[15] Due to the cramped quarters in the building, the conference room is serving as Ray's office for the summer. Periodically, he is asked to leave the room when people need the big table for a meeting. He laments not having any privacy, but makes the best of the situation.

Before he sits down, he pulls together a binder filled with documentation and several large blueprints so that he can begin to work. His primary task for the day, and really for the whole summer, is to compare the costs charged by the subcontractor (detailer) for rebar installation with the number of rebars that had actually been installed. The paperwork in the binders provided by the detailer includes a listing of all the rebar charges, broken down to an individual level. The blueprints, put together by the inspectors, show the details of the construction, including the number and size of each rebar used in the construction. Ray looks at each rebar charge listed in the binder, then looks at the blueprint to ensure that the particular rebar had indeed been installed.

He looks through the different areas of construction and makes a note of any inconsistencies between the two sets of documentation. He uses different colored pens to highlight the matching pairs of charges and rebars. He finishes up two of the roof areas, and is ready to move on to a third. While he has the list of charges for the third area, he cannot locate the corresponding blueprint. After searching in several locations, he asks one of the engineers where it might be. All of the engineer's suggestions are places that Ray has already looked. They eventually give up the search and agree that he can use an older version of the blueprint. Given that the roof depicted on the print is currently being worked on, they realize that one of the inspectors probably has the most current version out in the field.

Once he sits down with the blueprint and charge sheet, Ray realizes that there are too many discrepancies between them for him to continue. So he decides to wait until he has the correct blueprint to complete the task. While rebars are his primary responsibility, he has several other duties which also require his attention. He uses these other tasks as a way to break up the monotony of working on the rebar payments. When he gets tired of the rebars, he can pick one of the other tasks, such as checking the Safety Inspection Book; creating/modifying Excel spreadsheets; or, if he is fortunate, accompanying one of the engineers into the field to one of the construction sites. He enjoys being able to join the engineers in the field, and particularly likes to assist with environmental testing (both soil and water).

The one thing he is really looking forward to is the opportunity to use computer-aided design (CAD) later in the internship. His supervisor is confident that they will be able to borrow CAD equipment from another office for Ray to use. Ray wants to demonstrate the CAD skills he had developed in school and to apply those skills in the "real world."

When he stops working on the rebar payments, he decides to look through the Safety Inspection Book. This task also involves looking through two sets of documentation to identify and correct any inconsistencies. These tasks, while not intellectually challenging, require attention to detail. As Ray's supervisor says, the work does not require any particular skills, other than being meticulous in your work. The Safety Inspection Book is a compilation of information based on individual submittals that the contractor had issued regarding particular pieces of equipment. Ray looks through the inspection book to ensure that it reflects all of the modifications outlined in the various submittals.

A short time later, his supervisor, Jim, interrupts his work and instructs him to put together a chart for an upcoming meeting. Ray stops what he is doing and asks the cost engineer if he can borrow his computer since Ray does not have one of his own to use. He works on the chart for a bit, and then negotiates with the secretary to use her printer. Not only does the chart print on letterhead (because the secretary had left it in the paper tray), but the column headings print out incorrectly. He returns to the computer and laments that the office uses different software than what he learned in school. After playing around with it a bit, he is finally satisfied and prints it again--this time on white paper.

In a somewhat tentative manner, he knocks on his supervisor's door and shows him the chart. Jim immediately points to an error and chastises Ray for the imperfect work. This turns into a several-minute lecture on the importance of doublechecking one's work. Looking a bit sheepish, Ray returns to the computer to fix the chart. He struggles and struggles, but resists asking anyone else how to make the corrections in Excel. As the meeting deadline approaches, Ray keeps trying different things until finally he prints the chart up again and takes it to Jim. This time Jim is satisfied with the chart. He takes the chart, enters the conference room, and closes the door. Ray, on the other hand, decides it is time to take a break.

Interning in a Science Research Laboratory

During their summer internships in the science building basement, Shawna and James work in a warm, windowless, narrow room, in which two other students also sit at computers. Shawna is practicing her typing program. When her mentor discovered that Shawna could not type, she gave Shawna a program for practicing keyboard skills and asked her to practice for 45 minutes daily. James worked at one computer, analyzing data from spinalized rats. In the experiment he is assisting with, the researchers are testing whether training can strengthen the reflex in the rat's leg. A machine pulls the leg and the reflex pulls it back. Sensors automatically record data on a VHS tape. James' task is to play the tape and determine the exact point where the machine pulls. He marks that portion of the graph, and enlarges two seconds' worth of data corresponding to the reflex. He then stores these raw data in another file, which he will later run through a different program. James explains that the rats are trained daily and data is recorded weekly. Two of the graduate students taught him how to do this task. One used a general approach, and the other taught him step-by-step. James thought the step-by-step method was better for him. James says he worked two weeks, six hours a day, just to learn to be proficient using the data analysis programs. James is also helping take care of the rats. He puts a boot, which contains the movement sensors, on the rat's leg. This is very difficult because the rats try to bite and move around a lot. He is very animated when he talks about handling the rats--he definitely prefers working with the animals over data analysis.

The lab manager comes by to tell Shawna that her mentor is coming later in the afternoon to teach her a new procedure. At the appointed time, Shawna goes to the lab and meets Anne. Shawna puts on rubber gloves because the experiment is about RNA isolation, and RNA from her hands can contaminate the lab area and the experiment. The purpose of this study is to test a new method for isolating RNA. If it is successful, Anne can use this method to gather data for her Ph.D. dissertation. She is teaching this method to Shawna this summer in order to make better use of Shawna's time during the school year. Since Shawna will only visit the lab one morning a week, it is important to use her time efficiently. If the experiment works out, it can be part of Shawna's science fair project.

Anne begins by giving Shawna a summary of what they will be doing. The summary first explains that muscle tissue has been removed from a rat, "homogenized in lysis solution, and stored at 20 degrees centigrade. This protects RNA from breakdown by RNase." Three sets of tubes, one experimental and two control sets, are on the table. Each set contains certain liquids. Anne explains the controls to Shawna, then discusses what they will do today. The summary includes a step-by-step procedure that Shawna can refer to, if she chooses.

Anne knows that Shawna is familiar with the basic lab techniques, so she does not have to show her what to do. She watches while Shawna puts solution in the tubes, coaching her to "do 440, four times." Shawna measures 440 micrograms of lysate in a pipette, but has a problem releasing the liquid in the correct tube. Anne reminds her how the buttons work, then watches as Shawna proceeds. Shawna asks if she needs to change pipette tips. Anne says not, but to throw them out: "You only need to change them if you are going to stick the same tip in another solution." After the solutions are in the tubes, Shawna carries the tray over to the centrifuge. She puts three in the centrifuge, then realizes that it is not balanced and will not work properly. She fills another tube with water and places it in the centrifuge, with two tubes on each side. Anne watches closely as Shawna works, and congratulates her for remembering to balance the centrifuge. Anne said she purposely set up the task with three tubes to see if Shawna would remember what to do. Shawna passed the "test" with flying colors. Anne leaves the lab and tells Shawna to find her if she has any questions. Shawna looks at the instruction sheet and begins step six--"Incubate at 37¡ for ten minutes."

After about eight minutes, Anne returns. While they wait for the incubation time to end, she asks Shawna what she has been doing. They discuss the computer class that Shawna is taking to learn how to use the on-line bibliography at the library. She said the class was easy and now she will be able to do library searches. Anne suggests she go to the library on her own and do a couple of searches for practice. She gives her a name and a subject to search. When the incubation is complete, Anne tells Shawna to open all the tubes at once, then flip each closed as she adds the solution. This way, it is easier to keep track of which have been done. It is a good habit to get into, since some experiments will have twelve tubes to keep track of.

Later in the week, we wait in the lab manager's office while Anne rounds up the staff for the weekly basketball game. Shawna is wearing sunglasses indoors and is moving slowly. She did not come in yesterday because she said she had to cash her check and get a new monthly bus pass. Shawna and James each take two buses to get to the university campus every day--each one-way trip takes about an hour and a half. The manager playfully asks why Shawna can be so tired from just getting a bus pass. As Shawna leaves, the manager says, "I want to talk to you later." Shawna goes to the computer room to get instructions from a graduate student who she was supposed to meet yesterday. The student is not around, so she boots up the typing program. James is reading the paper, but begins talking to Shawna. Shawna types and talks simultaneously, until Anne comes in and tells them the game is about to start.

Running a School-Based Enterprise

At the SBE, student-owners sell their own salad dressing and produce from their garden. On one hot, smoggy morning in summer, the SBE appears, as usual, a bit chaotic. Students come and go from the office to the garden, the telephone rings, the water sprinkler breaks down, and a snake escapes from the adjoining biology classroom. But amid all this activity, student-owners learn the tasks associated with running a business--from weeding and watering the garden, to marketing and business planning, to dealing with suppliers and customers. Learning can happen in many ways, but most of it is hands-on. The overall atmosphere is friendly--all are on a first-name basis.

Outside in the quarter-acre garden, students and adult volunteers labor under a hot sun. Michael, one of the student-owners, arrives with a boom box, which he turns to a local radio station. Loud rap music blares out and mixes with the voices and laughter of today's garden crew. Several girls work diligently weeding the rows of vegetables and talking about the upcoming prom and the college tour that some seniors will take in the fall. Teresa, the biology teacher who helped found the enterprise at the high school, ties her dog Sophie on a long leash attached to a tree. One of the boys brings the dog a bowl of water.

Teresa welcomes a new mentor to the garden day. She introduces Andrea, a young artist, to Tasha, saying "Show her the ropes." Tasha explains that they are doing weeding, gets a tool, and shows Andrea how to use it. They begin working side-by-side. Andrea asks Tasha what grade she is in and about her college plans. Tasha tells Andrea she "looks like an athlete" and asks her what sport she plays. Later, Teresa says that she specifically connected Tasha and Andrea, hoping to make a "mentor connection." Tasha, like many of the student-owners, will be the first in her family to apply for college. She will need help filling out her college application and applying for financial aid. The SBE has about 25 adult mentors who perform various roles. For example, one mentor is a business professor who gives classes in accounting; another is a screenwriter who helps write proposals and sales brochures.

Inside the office, located in a small building next to the garden, Celia, the SBE's executive director, meets with Laura, a food vendor. Laura will be selling salads in a booth at the Los Angeles Blues Festival in Long Beach this weekend, and she wants to display the enterprise's salad dressing. She picks up several cases of dressing and some
t-shirts to sell.

The office consists of one large room, divided by partitions. The first space has a table and a set of unmatched, rickety chairs, some shelves, a bulletin board, and a white board. The middle space holds the xerox machine, three computer work stations, a filing cabinet, and two shelves with materials. The third space also has two computers, filing cabinets, shelves, and cabinets with materials. Telephones, a fax machine, a postage meter, and other office supplies and equipment rest on a long table that runs the width of the room.

The white board in the main conference space lists announcements, garden tasks, or reminders about things that need to be done. The list is always changing. Today it posts a reminder from Teresa about personal phone calls: personal phone calls cost the company money, make lines busy so customers and partners cannot get through, and are not doing work [for the enterprise]. She ends by saying, "Anyone using the phone for personal reasons is stealing money from the company and therefore in line to be fired." Another item reads "Point sheets are like timecards at work." This is a reminder from Celia, who says that students can be very lax in turning in their point sheets by the end of the month. She's had to tell several of them who wanted to turn them in late that they were out of luck. She told them, "If you don't get your timesheet in at work, you don't get paid. This should be no different."

Students come in and out of the office, to get a glass of water or to cool down a bit before they resume gardening. Billy comes in and tells Celia that the mulch has arrived and they will unload it. Teresa explains that she and a team of students went to the Veterans Administration Hospital garden to learn their mulching techniques. At the last staff meeting, the team debriefed the other student-owners on what they learned. Gardeners at the VA use a full six inches of mulch to preserve moisture and to discourage weeds from growing. The student-owners decided to order mulch and try the method in one of the garden plots.

Celia sits at a computer with Illeana, teaching her how to do invoices. When she seems to understand the process, she lets Illeana proceed on her own. Celia checks back with Marya, who is compiling an updated list of the schedule for grocery store demonstrations, or "demos." (For the demos, two or three students set up a table at a grocery store, hand out samples of salad with their dressing, and talk to customers about their business.) Marya is a new student, who is interning at the SBE during the summer. Marya is having problems finding the store numbers in the files. Celia says, "Where would they have gotten the store numbers if they did not have the list?" Marya suggests the phone book, and tries to locate the numbers she needs. She calls the store and asks for the nearest cross street. Celia and Marya look at a city map and decide that this is not the correct store--it is on the right street, but at the far end of town. Celia says, "Try and think, who else would have all the stores?" Marya says, "How about the broker?" Celia smiles. She was hoping that Marya had learned enough about the business at this point to come up with a solution to the problem. She asks Marya to call the broker, and ask for the current list of the stores in this chain. First, she rehearses the conversation with Marya and gives her feedback. When Marya is ready, she makes the call and gets the information. During this exchange with Marya, Celia is still keeping track of Illeana, answering questions from other students, and looking for the keys to the van.

The following week, the student-owners hold their weekly meeting in the biology classroom adjoining the office. Teresa says she has a lot of announcements to make and asks if there are other items to add to the agenda. She announces that Vons is having a "back to school" campaign and had contacted their broker to arrange some demos. They identify twelve stores and decide to have four students doing taste-testing at each. Teresa asks Willie if he would be responsible for demo training, and he agrees to do it. Next, Teresa announces that Celia and Natalie, a student-owner, will be going to Hawaii to speak at an entrepreneurship conference. After that, discussion turns to the creation of a web page. A team from a marketing group has agreed to help them with marketing and creation of a web page. Several students volunteer to meet with the team on the following Tuesday. The meeting is suddenly interrupted by a commotion in the back of the room. Two iguanas are fighting, and Teresa goes to their cage and separates them. Once the group settles down, she discusses a meeting with Nissan, who is going to sponsor ten seniors to go on a tour of black colleges in the fall. Eligibility for this trip will depend on interest and grades. Several students ask questions about the trip. Finally, Teresa says, "I'm going to give you my teacher lecture. In September, school starts, so hit your books hard." She reminds them to sign up to take the SAT and ACT as soon as possible and to start identifying colleges where they want to apply.

Individual study respondents and participating programs and firms were assured anonymity; all proper names appearing in this report are pseudonyms.

[11] In this school district, many of the magnet schools are housed at regular high school campuses.

[12] This emphasis on college preparation is reflected in several aspects of the program. They discuss the work experience portion as an internship, not work. The worksites are called resource sites, not employers. In fact, when we initially approached the school to participate in the study, the administrators declined because they said they were not a vocational program and were not providing WBL.

[13] As with any program, unknown selection effects may bias the sample. Students who seek out these programs may be more motivated, more interested in work, less interested in school, and so on. We did not attempt to account for selection or other mitigating factors that affect program participation.

[14] The school's view of WBL as a volunteer internship was well-ingrained in these students. Some had a difficult time with survey questions that referred to their WBL experience as their "job" because they associated jobs with work for pay.

[15] This scenario represents working at one of two TCAP sites. In the next section, we include data from both sites.