| Brief No. 5 | Fall 1996 |
. . . in programs linking education and work
Just another thing of the past, we might think. But is it? The world of work has changed substantially since the times of Lucille Ball. High- performance companies now emphasize teamwork and involve managers and workers in problem solving. Workers must also have critical thinking and communication skills in order to effectively participate in contemporary management styles. However, employers think that we are still trapped in the past, still educating individuals for outmoded management styles and low-skill jobs. A report by the William T. Grant Foundation's Commission on Work, Family and Citizenship (1988) indicated that the majority of students graduating from high school lack the necessary skills for successful participation in the workforce or college. Herein lies a call for action and education reforms for preparing individuals to become problem solvers, critical thinkers, and users of reasoning and communication skills in a variety of real-world situations.
In this issue, we describe students' perspectives on schooling experiences which facilitate authentic learning through a systematic comparative analysis of qualitative information. The content is based on "Producing Knowledge in Career- Oriented Programs," an article authored by Hernández-Gantes and Sanchez (1996) and presented at the 1996 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.
How can teachers connect instruction to real-work learning experiences? Based on students' voices and perspectives on critical events conducive to authentic instruction and learning, three factors were found to be important in making this connection:
| The program combines exploration of several industries in the
school and how the city works to understand what goes on around us. Stefan |
| In this program, we spend some time learning what we can do in
different shops during our freshman year. In the sophomore year we pick out a
shop we want for one term and then we can switch to another one after another
term or we can stay there if we want. Stefan |
| You get hands-on and academic experience because it's good to
incorporate both. In the past, people would think that this program was only
for learning a trade and that it was not possible to go on to higher education.
Actually that's not true because you have to use both hands and mind in this
program. Kenny |
happens in the school and out there in the real world. It is not just in the classroom but also . . . learning from others in the workplace. Because if you want to learn from someone else, that person would have to know you and by the same token you should be able to relate to that person at work.
Karen, another student in the Manufacturing program, agreed and offered her own perspective:
| I seem to learn more when I'm at my company than I do in the
classroom because I've got experienced people to learn from. They come and
explain things to me and ask me all sorts of questions to find out what I know.
If I don't know, they'll teach me. Karen |
| |
| One of the problems with corn is that it's a seasonal crop. If we
have a good season, we are usually the leaders in corn production in the United
States. But the only time we can produce corn is during the summer because
that's when the conditions are right. Now, if we could only alter the
biochemistry of how corn grows by manipulating the genes, we could possibly
increase the average yield. If we could expand the growing season--not in
winter weather but at least through the fall--maybe we could eat corn on the
cob in the winter time. It is a matter of isolating the right genes and that's
what I'm looking into. Phil |
| My group will be doing a prosthetics project if our teacher
approves it. We plan on doing an exploration of what prosthetics will look like
in twenty years. We will track the history of prosthetics and then we will spin
off in our science project to link with the robotics lab to come up with a
prototype of something that might be used in the future. The robotics lab has
some muscle wire for artificial arms and we plan on doing a bioengineering
project to connect science history to practical applications which may be used
in the future in the area of prosthetics engineering.
Carol |
Deep knowledge is facilitated by the disciplined inquiry required to complete projects either in the classroom or in work-based environments. This process can be best described by Dale's insights on the things involved in one of his projects. He talked about making small parts with the right dimensions and being careful not to run the machines too fast because "it gets too hot and the tool bit will break." However, he added that "if you run the machines too slow, then you're losing money for your company. So you really have to figure out what your spindle speed is and everything before you start working on anything."
Developing such an understanding of the optimum conditions for operating equipment, quality control, and the implications for the company's success beyond the mere production of parts, required him to have deep knowledge of the topic at hand. It also required thorough knowledge of academic and practical skills connected with making parts and a complex understanding of the repercussions of his performance. "It is not all cut and dried," he observed. "You have got to use your head a little more often to understand what's going on instead of looking in the book to find the answer."
Instructional activities were also described by students as flexible and supportive of exchanges with the instructor or other students. "The most important thing at this school is trust," said Leslie, a sophomore student in the Science and Technology program:
| The students get so much trust and respect at this school that it
is just a whole different atmosphere than you'd ever imagine anywhere else.
What makes a difference is the energy that comes from the students because all
of us are so intense working on different projects. So we bring energy and life
into the classroom and to the different assignments. Leslie |
Wally, a Technical Arts student, reinforced this notion by saying that "teachers need to get us involved in class conversation if we want to learn." He offered the following example:
| In an English class we had videotapes on drugs and we did a lot of
presentations on problems with fights and other school problems. And the class
got all the students involved. That was the first time I enjoyed a class
because I learned from different points of view and had the opportunity to
share mine. Wally |
Students also spoke about different topics addressed in class projects, were articulate in their understanding of learning experiences, and were able to explain knowledge derived from such experiences, which were, indeed, a departure from rote memorization of facts and figures.
| The math teacher was explaining angles and related material and I
started to relate it to the parts I was making in the Manufacturing Academy. So
that makes the class more exciting because most of the kids who are not part of
the Manufacturing program would just stare at the teacher but not be able to
relate [the lesson] to anything. It really helps me to understand geometry much
better when I can relate it to something I know. Patricia |
These connections of academic and practical knowledge to real-world situations were also made possible through participation in internships and other forms of work-based learning available to students in all programs.
Through work-based connecting activities, students are able to learn about various aspects of industries of interest and develop an understanding beyond the mere application of practical skills.
Students consistently mentioned the connections they were able to make with the human factor (e.g., coworkers, professionals, and mentors) in these work interactions and how they were able to develop social knowledge related to the culture of occupations and corporations.
| I know a lot more things than kids at other high schools in the
area. I have the same classes as other high school students but with these
agriculture classes it's like added value on education. This was not important
when I was a freshman, but now that I know more about going out in the real
world, I know this agricultural knowledge will come in handy in the future. Rhonda |
The synergy generated by the school culture and curriculum orientation also appears to contribute to the motivation of students. "I think the school orientation [program focus] definitely has a positive impact on you because you are around people with the same interests," noted Edward, a Science and Technology program student. In such an environment, Paul, another Science and Technology student, added that "you are challenged and actually learn a lot of practical and academic skills which can be very useful in college."
First, it requires a shift from a heavily controlled classroom in which the instructor is the dispenser of knowledge to a more open teaching environment where both students and teachers participate in understanding learning activities.
Second, it calls for moving from an emphasis on rote memorization of facts and figures to more active ways of learning (e.g., by engaging students in generating knowledge through research and problem solving).
Third, it demands a shift from individual and fragmented teaching efforts to a collaborative approach grounded in integrated learning activities linking subject matter in the school with work-based learning occurring outside the school.
The findings of this study offered no surprises regarding the positive benefits of situated cognition instructional strategies on student learning. Other studies have found similar positive contributions of situated cognition instructional strategies in a variety of settings and circumstances. What is worth noting here is that positive evaluations of participating students addressed not the testing of isolated situated cognition methods or artifacts, but an overall approach embedded in programs linking education and work.
Varied learning experiences connecting school and work in an occupational context seems to facilitate student engagement in acquiring and producing new knowledge. Through formal and informal apprenticeship opportunities, both in and outside of the school, students learn from experts in their field of interest, advanced students, and other individuals playing different roles in their preparation.
Authentic instructional activities emphasized in school and reinforced through work-based learning activities appear to be critical to the success of career-oriented programs and to the quality of student learning. Across all programs, students' perspectives on instructional activities suggested high levels of authenticity by involving higher-order thinking skills; emphasizing the creation of in-depth knowledge; and encouraging research, problem-solving, and the communication of findings to peers and worksite mentors. These claims' validity can be an important point for discussion, since no classroom observations were conducted to specifically verify the quality levels of authentic instructional activities. Overall, thanks to a highly visible occupational/career focus, there are plentiful opportunities for high levels of authentic instruction (e.g., senior research projects, manufacturing projects, experiments) across all programs. Collectively, these instructional activities promote active learning, facilitate production of new knowledge, and engage students in stimulating courses of learning that are anything but boring.
Two additional benefits were identified. Students appeared to develop a sophisticated understanding of how the world of work functions, and to grasp the implications for applying academic and practical skills beyond production processes.
Through this understanding, students seemed motivated by their appreciation for academic subject matter, practical applications, and anticipated future benefits to career plans.
In light of these findings, we must ask some critical questions as career-oriented programs become commonplace around the nation. First, given the increasing but varying levels of academic rigor observed in these programs, how do we ensure equal access for all students, as promised by education reforms undergirding these programs? Second, because of the complexity of implementing true authentic instructional activities, how can we assure high levels of authenticity in both school- and work-based learning settings? Third, how can we build a community of learners (including employers) in which apprenticeship opportunities in the workplace become a rigorous learning experience grounded in real-work practices, instead of specific preparation for jobs? These and other related questions need to be addressed if we are to provide challenging curricula linking education and work to all students.
The standards for authentic instruction developed by Newman and Wehlage of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Standards offer excellent frameworks to guide efforts in developing integrated authentic curricula by envisioning content, pedagogy, and assessment as integral components of teaching and learning. The challenge lies in bringing together administrators, academic and vocational instructors, and employers for curriculum development purposes--a daunting task indeed, but a task deserving serious consideration.
This longitudinal study was designed to build an understanding of the experiences acquired by students through programs featuring key elements of current education reforms. Of particular interest were the experiences of students who are traditionally underrepresented in the literature (e.g., female, Latino, and Asian students). In 1993-1996, project staff periodically interviewed students in nine secondary and postsecondary programs linking education and work. Qualitative techniques were used to collect and analyze data, and identify themes as an ongoing process.
An in-depth examination of the personal experiences encountered in education and work is crucial in understanding how students make decisions to enter education for work programs. Further, how students from different genders and ethnic backgrounds differentially experience vocational education is also central to understanding the impact of policies and practices on overcoming barriers to full participation in the economy.
Based on these premises, the study was grounded in four major research questions.
At the secondary level, five programs were included representing the following curriculum orientations: business, technical arts, manufacturing, science and technology, and agricultural sciences. At the postsecondary level, four programs participated in this study representing the fields of biomedical technology, environmental sciences, international trade, and computer-aided design technology.
Overall, 65% of the participating students are male and 35% female. Participation by ethnicity is as follows: African-American, 26%; Asian, 8%; Hispanic, 18%; Native American, 2%; and Caucasian, 46%.
Brief No. 1: Learning From Students' Perspectives on Programs Linking Education and Work
This report provides background information on the study design, characteristics of research participants, research procedures, and analytical techniques. Brief descriptions of the programs studied are also provided.
Brief No. 2: Quality Indicators of Programs Linking Education and Work
This report provides high school students' perspectives on the three core components undergirding current reforms in vocational education: (1) integration of vocational and academic education, (2) integration of secondary education, and (3) linkages between school and work.
Brief No. 3: Building a School Climate Conducive to Learning: Students' Perspectives
This report provides a description of three critical elements of school climate as identified by high school students enrolled in five programs linking education and work. These three elements are (1) authentic program context, (2) teaching and learning context, and (3) a supportive environment conducive to learning.
Brief No. 4: Grounding Career Development in Authentic Learning Activities
Important considerations for enhancing students' career development are highlighted in this report. A benchmarking approach for program improvement is suggested.
Brief No. 5: Connecting Education and Work Through Authentic Instruction
Problem-solving, research projects, and critical thinking activities that are integrated into authentic teaching and learning are addressed in this report.
Brief No. 6: Gender Perspectives on Programs Linking Education and Work
This report addresses the question of equity and access to programs linking education and work based on gender perspectives. High school students, both male and female talk about their experiences in five career-oriented programs.
Other Voices of Diversity Briefs will be forthcoming. These reports will address high school students' perspectives on their schooling and transitional experiences. Briefs describing two-year college students' perspectives on similar issues will also be produced.
Detailed descriptions of project findings can be found in both published journal articles and in papers presented at national conferences. The following are available:
Producing knowledge in career- oriented programs: Students' perspectives on schooling experiences (1996, December). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Vocational Association (AVA), Cincinnati, Ohio.
Developing career and academic aspirations in school-to-work programs: A qualitative study of gender perspectives (1996, April). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association (AERA), New York.
Developing career and academic aspirations: Creating new and different doors for students in school-to-work programs (1995, July). Paper presented at the National Leadership Forum on School-to-Work Transition, Boston, Massachusetts.
Voices of diversity in emerging vocationalism: Students' perspectives on school climate (1995, April). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), San Francisco, California.
Staff
Project Directors
Project Assistants
Voices of Diversity Briefs,
Research Advisory GroupPenny Burge Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityColleen Capper University of Wisconsin-Madison Clifton F. Conrad University of Wisconsin-Madison Lizanne DeStefano University of Illinois Jane Plihal University of Minnesota Christine E. Sleeter University of Wisconsin-Parkside Sandra M. Mathison SUNY-Albany James Stone, III University of Minnesota Janet Washbon Wisconsin Technical College System Board Wendy L. Way University of Wisconsin-Madison
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